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SELLING AGENT, 


E. N. WELCH MFG. CO. 

Established 1829. 

= AND ■ 


BOSTON CLOCK CO. 

Established 1880. 


13 Maiden Lane, New York. 


The SUPERIOR CLOCKS made by these Companies 

have NO EQUAL. 

Are better than any imported or domestic make. 


A large and entirely new and handsome selection of 


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For the MANTEL, or for HANGING, also for TRAVELING, 

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EXAMINE THESE BEFORE BUYING ELSEWHERE. 































WORKSHOP NOTES 


FOR JEWELERS AND 


WATCHMAKERS. 


BEING A COLLECTION OF THE LATEST PRACTICAL RECEIPTS 
ON THE MANUFACTURE AND REPAIRING OF WATCHES AND 
CLOCKS, AND ON THE VARIOUS PROCESSES ENTERING INTO 
THE MANUFACTURE AND REPAIRING OF JEVVELRV, AS COL¬ 
ORING, POLISHING, ENAMELING, ANNEALING, OXYDIZING, 
ETC.; IN SHORT, A THOROUGH COMPENDIUM OF THE NU¬ 
MEROUS MECHANICAL DEPARTMENTS OF THE JEWELERS’ 
AND WATCHMAKERS’ SHOP. 





BV 



One who has contributed such 
Matter to THE JEWELERS’ 

CIRCULAR for Twelve Years. 

/ £7 £9 y 


New York: 

JEWELERS’ CIRCULAR PUBLISHING CO., 

189 BROADWAY. 







UBSCRIBERS to The Jewelers’ Circular 



^ are well aware that since the appearance of its 
first number, 22 years ago, it has succeeded in col¬ 
lecting on its editorial staff writers second to none 
in this or any other country, and that its columns 
have contained technical instruction of a high order 
on the subjects of horology, jewelry, optics, and 
the kindred branches, both useful to the appren¬ 
tice and the accomplished workman at the bench. 

The management of The Jewelers’ Circular 
has been repeatedly urged to collect and publish 
these articles, and issue them in book form, as they 
were considered to be too valuable to pass away. 

The volume presented herewith is the result of 
these solicitations. It will be found to contain 
numerous valuable additions to the extracts from 
The Jewelers’ Circular. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, 1892, 
by the Jewelers’ Circular Pub. Co.. 




» 



THE WATCH. 


I T is well, perhaps, that we preface the 
more minute treatment of the watch in 
this work with a few cursory remarks. 

It is the common verdict of both watch¬ 
makers and laymen that a well-constructed 
lever is the best for all practical purposes. 
A pocket chronometer is not as reliable, 
while, if of larger dimensions and furnished 
with all the possible mechanical appliances, 
auxiliaries, and improvements, as ship or 
marine chronometer, it is doubtless the best 
timepiece constructed. When we say “ for 
practical purposes,” it is not meant that the 
watch may be treated with impunity to any 
and every indignity, or be used as toy by 
children, as ladies’ watches too often are. 

Let us examine any other piece of ma¬ 
chinery ; how strong and powerful it is in 
any and all of its parts; still, it is never re¬ 
quired to perform one-half of the work of 
the tiny watch, which unremittingly labors 
night and day, week day and Sunday, month 
and year, without intermission or stop, and 
if it has been duly cared for and consider¬ 
ately treated, it may arrive at the ripe age 
of one hundred years, while the ponderous 
machinery is cleaned and oiled repeatedly 
during the day, hosts of men attend to its 
wants, and after all it lasts only for a short 
time. 

The watchmaker will readily understand 
that any external motions exert an important 
influence upon the vibration, and conse¬ 
quently upon the staff and pivots of the bal¬ 
ance. If this external motion occurs in the 
direction of the vibrating plane of the bal¬ 
ance, and a vibration takes place simultane¬ 
ously in the same direction, the vibration arc 
is increased; if in the contrary direction, 
such an arc will be decreased, and it is only 
without damage to the time-keeping, if the 


external motion occurs in a vertical direction 
to the balance axis. 

The most ordinary external motions, how¬ 
ever, occur in another direction than that of 
the balance, whereby a sensible pressure is 
exerted upon the axis of the vibrating mass, 
productive of an increased friction of the 
pivots in their bearings, etc., and a retarda¬ 
tion, never an acceleration, takes place. In 
most watches, the pivot holes of which are 
of ruby, the retard of a watch is much larger, 
but standing fairly well in ratio with its con¬ 
struction and finish. 

A marine chronometer, regulated to an 
almost imperceptible difference, and having 
preserved an excellent rate during a long sea 
voyage, would, when worn as a watch, go too 
slow, in consequence of the external motions 
experienced; in fact, it would prove to be 
inferior to a good detached lever watch. 
Beside all imaginable auxiliary improve¬ 
ments, these chronometers are in a special 
box and suspended in such a way that they 
do, or should, remain in an equal position in 
all the different motions of the ship. 

Watchmakers should recommend to their 
customers to wind their watches slowly, no 
matter whether key-winder or stem-winder, 
avoiding all jerky motions. They should be 
wound at a stated time in the morning; the 
watch will then work best during the day, as 
the spring will exert its best traction power, 
whereby the external motions to which the 
watch is exposed during the day’s wear is 
fairly well counterbalanced; this is greatly 
better than when winding it at night, because 
it has only the weakened spring to offer as 
resistance next day. Nor need the break¬ 
ing of the spring be feared ; this is no longer 
at full tension during the night, and can stand 
better the ensuing cold. 





















2 


THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 


Let watchmakers recommend to their cus¬ 
tomers that if they lay their watch at night 
either at an inclination, flat, or suspended, it 
should always be done in the same manner 
—not differing every night. The rate differ¬ 
ence between the vertical and horizontal po¬ 
sitions is often significant, in second-rate 
watches sometimes two or three minutes in 
one night; another vicious way is to suspend 
a watch from a nail in such a manner that it 
will rock to and fro like a pendulum, and a 
watch with a heavy balance will gain, and, 
vice versa, one with a light one will lose. 
This lies of course in the nature of things. 
Similar observations can be made by clocks 
which are not firm in their case. 

The temperature difference between the 
heat of the pocket and a wall nearly to the 
freezing point is about 77 0 to 88° F. and a 
watch should therefore never be either sus¬ 
pended or laid upon it—least of all an out¬ 
side wall; the sudden change of tempera¬ 
ture may cause the sudden breaking of the 
spring; also the oil thickens, especially if no 
longer pure, which cannot help but produce 
irregularities of rate; if the balance is not 
compensated, it must gain from this piece of 
carelessness, and should it possess construct¬ 
ive defects, it may stand still from the cold. 

The watch wearer should clean his watch 
pocket frequently, to free it from accumulat¬ 
ing dust and fibers. Even by the cleanest 
pursuits, a sort of fiber dust will gather in the 
pocket, caused by the friction of the watch 
case, and this very easily finds its way into 
the interior of the watch, and is much more 
pernicious than common dust, by wrapping 
around the little component parts, and re¬ 
tarding, sometimes preventing, their motion. 
No other articles should be carried in the 
watch pocket, such as keys, coin, etc.; it is 
often done, yet highly detrimental and care¬ 
less. Watch crystals may be broken, the 
case indented, the dial and hands injured, 
etc. The watch should never be worn against 
the bony part of the body. 

But by even the greatest of care, it is impos¬ 
sible that the watch can go forever without 
periodical repairs, and it should be cleaned 
once a year. All manner of machinery re¬ 
quires an occasional supervision, and this 
should be performed on the watch at least 
once a year; the oil has dried up by this, 
time, and become mixed with particles of 
metallic dust, which acts like emery. The 
writer, during a long practice, has had occa¬ 
sion to manipulate costly watches, and sev¬ 


eral of them were almost ruined beyond re¬ 
pair by having run beyond the time. They 
generally belonged to people who were afraid 
to trust their timepieces to indifferent work¬ 
men, and sooner risked the consequences. 

If the repairing watchmaker urges these 
points, and many, many more, upon his cir¬ 
cle of customers, he may in time succeed in 
educating them into treating their watches 
with a little more consideration than is gen¬ 
erally allotted them, to the satisfaction both 
of the repairer and the owner. 


THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 

REVIEW of the different watch escape¬ 
ments is highly instructive, and an aston¬ 
ishing amount of ingenuity has often been put 
forth in their construction ; nevertheless, prac¬ 
tice has shown that all except four, to wit: 
the verge, cylinder, anchor or lever, and 
chronometer escapements, are unreliable. 
The verge is fast becoming obsolete, and 
only the last three are left. The escapement 
most universally used to-day is the lever, and 
is claimed to be an English invention, said 
to have been made in 1770, by Mr. Thos. 
Mudge; others accredit it to Tompion, and 
date its invention to 1695. The Swiss also 
claim the invention. It is very possible that 
it was invented simultaneously about the 
same time in England and Switzerland, and 
although the general form and principles to¬ 
day are the same, they varied largely about 
100 years ago, at which time the Swiss con¬ 
struction rightfully deserved the name of 
“ anchor ” escapement, from its peculiar 
form, while the English called theirs “ lever ” 
escapement, with every show of reason ; both 
appellations are still dominant in these two 
countries. 

We borrow the description and action of 
the escapement from the excellent work on 
watchmaking by Mr. F. J. Britten, omitting 
the illustrations, as every watchmaker is so 
thoroughly acquainted with the functions 
and performance of the parts that an illus¬ 
tration is unnecessary. The cut shows the 
most usual form of the English lever escape¬ 
ment, in which the pallets scape over three 
teeth of the wheel. A tooth of the escape 
wheel is at rest upon the locking-face of the 
entering left-hand pallet. The impulse pin 
has just entered the notch of the lever and 
is about to unlock the pallet. The action 
of the escapement is as follows : The balance 
which is attached to the same staff as the 




THE LEVER ESCArEMENT. 


3 


roller, is traveling in the direction indicated 
by the arrow, which is around the roller, 
with sufficient energy to cause the impulse 
pin to move the lever and pallets far enough 
to release the wheel tooth from the locking- 
face, and allow it to enter on the impulse 
face of the pallet. Directly it is at liberty, 
the escape wheel, actuated by the mainspring 
of the watch, moves round the same way as 
the arrow, and pushes the pallets out of its 
path. By the time the wheel tooth has ar¬ 
rived at the end of the impulse face of the 
pallet, its motion is arrested by the exit or 
right-hand pallet, the locking-face of which 
has been brought into position to receive 
another tooth of the wheel. When the pal¬ 
let was pushed aside by the wheel tooth, it 
carried with it the lever, which in its turn 
communicated a sufficient blow to the im¬ 
pulse pin to send the balance with renewed 
energy on its vibration, so that the impulse 
pin has the double office of unlocking the 
pallets by giving a blow on one side of the 
notch of the lever, and of immediately re¬ 
ceiving a blow from the opposite side of the 
notch. The balance proceeds on its excur¬ 
sion, winding up, as it goes, the balance 
spring, until its energy is expended. After 
it is brought to a state of rest, its motion is 
reversed by the uncoiling of the balance 
spring, the impulse pin again enters the notch 
of the lever, but from the opposite direction, 
and the operation already described is re¬ 
peated. The object of the safety pin is to 
prevent the wheel from being unlocked ex¬ 
cept when the impulse pin is in the notch 
of the lever. The banking pins keep the 
motion of the lever within the desired limits. 
They should be placed where every blow 
from the impulse pin on to the outside of the 
lever is received direct. They are sometimes 
placed at the tail of the lever, but in that 
position the locking pins receive the blow 
through the pallets, staff pivots, which are 
liable to be broken in consequence. 

The escape wheel has fifteen teeth, and 
the distance between the pallets, from center 
to center, is equal to 6o° of the circumference 
of the wheel. The pallets are planted as 
closely as possible to the wheel, so that the 
teeth of the wheel, in passing, just clear the 
belly of the pallets.* The width of each 

* When the tooth is pressing on the locking, the 
line of pressure should pass through the center of 
the pallet staff. But as the locking-surface of the 
two pallets are not equidistant from the center of 
motion, a tangent drawn from the locking corner of 
one pallet would be wrong for the other, and as a 


pallet is made as nearly as possible half the 
distance between one tooth of the escape 
wheel and the next. As the teeth of the 
wheel must be of an appreciable thickness 
and the various pivots must have shake, it is 
not found practicable to get the pallets of 
greater width than io° of the circumference 
of the wheel, instead of 12 0 , which would 
be half the distance between one tooth and 
the next. This difference between the the¬ 
oretical and actual width of the pallet is 
called the “drop.” The lever is pinned to 
the pallets, and has the same center of 
motion. The distance between the center 
of the lever and the center of the roller 
is not absolute. The distance generally 
adopted is a chord of 96° of a circle repre¬ 
senting the path of the tips of the escape- 
wheel teeth, that is the distance from the tip 
of one tooth to the tip of the fifth succeed¬ 
ing tooth. The proportion, as it is called, of 
the lever and roller is usually from 3 to 1 to 
3 ]/ 2 to 1. In the former case, the length of 
the lever (measured from the center of the 
pallet staff to the center of impulse pin or 
mouth of notch) is three times the distance 
of the center of the impulse pin from the 
center of the roller, and in the latter case 
3^ times. The portion of the lever to the 
left of the pallet-staff hole acts as counter¬ 
poise. 

In this form of the lever escapement the 
pallets have not less than io° of motion. 
Of this amount, 2 0 are used for locking, and 
the remainder for impulse. The amount of 
locking is to some extent dependent on the 
size of the escapement. With a large escape¬ 
ment, less than i* 4 ° would suffice, while a 
small one would require more than 2 0 . The 
quality of the work, too, is an element in 
deciding the amount of locking. The lighter 
the locking the better, but it must receive 
every tooth of the wheel safely, and where 
all the parts of the escapement are made 
with care, the escapement can be made with 
a light locking, io° pallets, with a lever and 
roller 3 to 1, give a balance arc of 30 0 , that 
is to say, the balance in its vibration is freed 
from the escapement except during 30 0 , 
when the impulse pin is in contact with the 
lever. 

Presuming that the staff hole is correctly 

matter of fact, if a diagram is made it will be found 
that even when the pallets are planted as close as 
possible they are hardly as close as they should be 
for the right-hand pallet. To plant as close as pos¬ 
sible is therefore a very good rule and is the one 
adopted by the best pallet makers. 


4 


THE CLUB-TOOTH LEVER ESCAPEMENT. 


drilled with relation to the planes, a rough 
rule for testing io° pallets is that a straight 
edge laid on the plane of the entering pallet, 
should point to the locking corner of the exit 
pallet. 

When from setting the hands of a watch 
back, or from a sudden jerk, there is a ten¬ 
dency for the pallets to unlock, the safety 
pin butts against the edge of the roller. It 
will be observed that when the impulse pin 
unlocks the pallets, the safety pin is allowed 
to pass the roller by means of the crescent 
which is cut out of the roller opposite to the 
impulse pin. The teeth of the escape wheel 
make a considerable angle with a radial line 
(24 0 ), so that their tips only touch the lock¬ 
ing-faces of the pallets. The locking-faces 
of the pallets, instead of being curves struck 
from the center of motion of the pallets, as 
would be otherwise the case, are cut back at 
an angle, so as to interlock with the wheel 
teeth.* This is done so that the safety pin 
shall not drag on the edge of the roller, but 
be drawn back till the lever touches the 
banking pin. When the operation of setting 
the hands back is finished, or the other cause 
of disturbance removed, the pressure of the 
wheel tooth on the locking-face of the pallet 
draws the pallet into the wheel as far as the 
banking pin will allow. The amount of this 
“ run ” should not be more than sufficient to 
give proper clearance between the safety pin 
and the roller, for the more the run the 
greater is the resistance to unlocking. This 
rule is sometimes sadly transgressed and 
occasionally the locking is found to be, from 
excessive run, almost equal in extent to the 
impulse. It will generally be found that in 
these cases the escapement is so badly pro¬ 
portioned that the extra run has had to be 
given to secure a sound safety action. In 
common watches, the safety action is a fre¬ 
quent source of trouble. The more the path 
of the safety pin intersects the edge of the 
roller, the sounder is the safety action, and 
if the intersection is small, the safety pin is 
likely to jam against the edge of the roller, 
or even to pass it altogether. 

With an ordinary single-roller escapement, 
a sound safety action cannot be obtained 
with a less balance arc than 30 0 . Even 
with a balance arc of 30 0 , the roller must 
be kept small in the following way to insure 
the soundness of the safety action. The 

* The locking face forms an angle of 6° to 8° with 
a tangent to a circle representing the path of the 
locking corner. 


hole for the impulse pin must not be left 
round. After it is drilled, a punch of the 
same shape as the impulse pin—that is, with 
one third of its diameter flattened off—should 
be inserted and the edge of the roller, where 
the crescent is to be formed, beaten in. By 
this means, the roller can be turned down 
small enough to get a sufficient intersection 
for the safety pin. 

It is useful in estimating the balance arc of 
a watch to remember, if it has a three-armed 
balance, that 30 0 is one-fourth of the dis¬ 
tance between two arms. With a compensa¬ 
tion balance, a third of the distance between 
two of the quarter screws is 30 0 . 


THE CLUB-TOOTH LEVER ESCAPE¬ 
MENT. 

ATCHMAKERS know well that this 
form of escapement is almost exclu¬ 
sively used in all the countries on the conti¬ 
nent, and since many specimens of it come 
to the workbench of the American repairer, it 
is well perhaps to turn our attention to it. The 
readers of the Circular Workshop Notes 
are well aware that the club-tooth escape¬ 
ment principally differs from the ratchet 
tooth in having the action divided between 
the pallet and the tooth, both having inclined 
impulse faces. The club tooth has also an 
advantage in closer escaping, the back of the 
tooth being undercut, thereby allows the 
pallet to pass inward at the back of the tooth, 
thus giving from one-half to a full degree 
more impulse arc in the scape wheel action, 
although no more in the pallet action. 

The action of this style of escapement is 
a little more complex and difficult to under¬ 
stand than the ratchet tooth, but is quite as 
easy to repair if once the principle is under¬ 
stood. The American and Swiss watches 
have almost universally this form of escape¬ 
ment, consequently four-fifths of the watches 
the watchmaker has to repair are either of 
the one or the other of these makes. The 
American watch, being provided with ex¬ 
posed pallets set in slots, can be moved and 
manipulated until a near approximation of 
the correct action is obtained. This ease of 
change and adjustment, although very nice 
for those who thoroughly understand the 
principles involved, is very vexatious to those 
who are so unfortunate as to lack this 
knowledge. American scape wheels of all 
the factories are nearly duplicates of each 
other, so are also the pallet stones, conse- 




THE CLEANING OF A WATCH. 


5 


quently there are but few changes which 
need to be made except in setting the pallet 
stones. 

The American watches made by the sev¬ 
eral factories have different methods of ar¬ 
riving at similar results. One factory acting 
from their convictions assume they can over¬ 
come slight inaccuracies by one method, 
while another insists their system is best. 
The most frequent disarrangement to which 
the American lever is subject is the breaking 
or loss of the jewel pin and the loosening 
and loss of a pallet stone. 


INSPECTION OF THE CYLINDER 
ESCAPEMENT. 

T HIS form of escapement is also known as 
the horizontal, so called from the fact of 
the escape wheel lying horizontally, in distinc¬ 
tion from the verge or vertical escapement. 
This escapement was invented by Tampion 
and perfected by Graham, early in the last 
century; it is now almost exclusively em¬ 
ployed in watches made on the continent, 
the English turning their attention more 
toward patent levers Movements of the 
flattest kind have cylinder escapements. The 
axis of the balance is a hollow cylinder, cut 
away to allow the passage of the scape 
wheel teeth. Though excellent for ordinary 
pocket watches, the cylinder escapement 
cannot be said to equal the lever and some 
others, where greater accuracy is required. 
The drop of the escapement is the cause of 
much trouble to watch repairers, but the 
following means will enable them to ascer¬ 
tain how far the drops are equal and correct: 

The movement being slightly wound up 
with a fine wire or strip of paper turn the 
balance till a tooth falls ; now, try how much 
shake the escape wheel has, and allow the 
tooth to escapethen try again and go all 
round the wheel, to see how all the teeth 
and spaces agree in size. To correct any 
inequality is certainly a job for an expert 
hand, and directions will not avail much un¬ 
less to an expert. When the tooth contained 
within the cylinder has no freedom and rubs 
at the point and heel, there is no internal 
drop; when the tooth has escaped and the 
cylinder shell rubs on the point of one tooth 
and the heel of the next, then there is no 
outside drop. The internal drop is increased 
by reducing the length of the teeth, the ex¬ 
ternal by increasing the space between the 
teeth. When the drop is very slight, the 


watch is very liable to stop through the ex¬ 
cessive friction; in the case of unequal drop 
the rate of a watch cannot be maintained, 
and occasional stoppages will occur. 

This fault is found by dotting the balance 
with spots of rouge and carefully noting the 
vibrations, which, if unequal, indicate un¬ 
equal drops. Though this is the usual cause, 
the same effect may be the result of some 
teeth lifting more than others. 

A noisy drop is caused by badly polished 
surfaces, and in such a case the heel of the 
cylinder should be carefully noticed. If the 
pivot holes of the escape wheel are too large 
an immense amount of trouble will be caused, 
and, in fact, all the end shakes and side 
shakes of the cylinder require most careful 
adjustment. An excess of oil will also cause 
an infinity of errors to arise and should be 
most carefully guarded against. The points 
of the escape wheel teeth may catch in a 
slight burr, which is sometimes left at the lips 
of the cylinder, and, of course, would stop 
the watch. This is remedied by polishing 
the cylinder and rounding off the points 
of the scape wheel teeth. 

The balance spring should be pinned up 
to have the escapement in perfect beat. 
This is done by pinning the stud on the 
spring so that it is exactly over a dot marked 
in the balance for the purpose of showing 
the position. Sometimes the lower corner 
of the heel of the scape wheel tooth touches 
the inside cylinder and stops the watch. 
But all these defects may be seen, or rather 
felt, by careful trial. If there is any doubt 
of parts touching where they should not, a 
spot of rouge put on will at once mark where 
it touches. _ 

THE CLEANING OF A WATCH. 

ANY methods and agents : Benzine and 
alcohol, cyanide of potassium, etc., are 
used for cleaning watches, and the horologi- 
cal press occasionally publishes a batch of 
new ones, so that the practical workman has 
every reason to look forward to the time 
when the movement need no longer be taken 
down, but is cleaned, lubricated and bur¬ 
nished up while the customer is waiting in 
the shop. But while we anxiously await the 
invention or discovery of this new method, 
let us meanwhile discuss, perhaps, the oldest 
and unexcelled—the washing in soap and 
water. The washing with a soft brush, 
warm water and an easily foaming soap is 
unsurpassed for the gilt parts, as well as the 





6 


THE CLEANING OF A WATCH. 


mat ground steel parts of a watch. After 
washing, the parts are only rinsed in pure 
alcohol, which dissolves all the particles of 
soap still adhering, and they are finally dried 
in sawdust. The original luster is hereby 
restored to the gilding, and it is necessary 
merely to lightly dab the pieces with a clean 
brush and to clean the holes. 

Some of our readers will rejoin by saying 
that this method is too tedious; this is true 
of shops where the several agents necessary 
are not at disposal. Every shop should con¬ 
tain a wash table, with alcohol lamp and a 
small light copper kettle in which to heat 
the water over the flame. Cold water can 
also be used, but this will not take off the 
old oil. 

The steel parts are most suitably cleaned 
in benzine and dried in sawdust. Polished 
brass parts must previously be retouched 
with the buffstick. 

When all the parts have been taken out 
of the sawdust, they are finally cleaned in 
the order in which to be mounted in the 
movement, so that each cleaned part is at 
once located in its place upon the plate. 

The wheels, and more especially the deli¬ 
cate parts, must, after cleaning, be scrutinized 
with the magnifier so as to be satisfied that 
no brush hair or other disturbing element 
has lodged anywhere. A hair is apt to 
lodge itself in the slit between the plate and 
the lower cylinder bridge, and, when trans¬ 
parent, it is easily overlooked. When this 
hair comes in contact with one of the escape¬ 
ment parts, it naturally will give rise to a 
very injurious disturbance. 

When the plate has been cleaned and the 
cap jewel plate screwed in place, I clean 
first the fourth wheel, screw the bridge on, 
and satisfy myself of the correct end-shake 
and the perfect freedom of the wheel; the 
third and center wheels are then mounted; 
the pivot of the latter wheel is lubricated, 
the center staff is put into the cannon and the 
cannon pinion broached. 

Some workmen will, after the fourth wheel, 
mount the scape wheel, and, if the fourth 
wheel is without seconds pivot, they begin 
the mounting with the cylinder scape wheel, 
as the freedom of this wheel is of great im¬ 
portance. 

I think that my method is preferable, be¬ 
cause it will happen that after the fastening 
of the cannon pinion a pinching of the center 
wheel will occur. Such a pinching is, in the 
absence of the scape wheel, far more easily 


seen and changed. An accidental trembling 
of the center staff, also, is more easily cor¬ 
rected. 

When the scape wheel has been mounted, 
and its shake found correct, investigate the 
smooth action of the train in different 
positions, by occasionally exerting a slight 
pressure against the center wheel. 

The cylinder bridge is then put together, 
and the cylinder, with spring, is fastened to 
the bridge. These parts are put together 
without oil, and examined whether every¬ 
thing is in thorough order. Only when the 
cylinder shake, the balance spring, and the 
drop has been arranged, put oil into the 
sinks. If too great a quantity is applied, so 
that it overruns the jewel, the oil will, by 
capillary action, draw away from the spot 
where it should be. 

When putting together the barrel parts, 
never forget to lubricate the clickwork, more 
particularly that of the going barrel, as the 
injury occasioned thereby would soon show 
itself. The mainspring is to be lubricated 
only slightly. The stopfinger should always 
be fastened with a steel pin; it is more 
securely retained thereby. The barrel is 
mounted in the plate, and the spring is 
wound a few teeth to apply oil to the es¬ 
capement. 

I am of the opinion that it is best to ap¬ 
ply a small portion of oil to each cylinder 
wheel pivot, while other workmen prefer to 
place a small drop of oil in the cylinder. 

The oil placed in the cylinder draws at 
once to the surface of the plug, and outside 
of the cylinder up to the collet. It therefore 
may happen with long cylinders that the 
teeth receive little or no oil. With short 
ones it is immaterial in which manner the oil 
is applied to the escapement, as it will in 
every case draw upward, because the wheel 
teeth come very near to the plug surface. 

Before the movement is set into the case 
this must be well cleaned within, because 
even new cases contain particles of dust and 
remnants of crocus. The case springs must 
invariably be taken out and cleaned ; a large 
quantity of filth will often be found round 
about and behind them, which, if not re¬ 
moved, would fall into the movement. Do 
the same with the push button. 

Only when the movement has been fast¬ 
ened in the case do I apply oil to those 
pivots which still can be reached. The 
minute wheel pinion, also, must be slightly 
moistened, because the pinion runs upon a 


REPAIRING AND EXAMINING WATCHES.—METHODS. 


7 


steel pivot; therefore two steel parts lie 
against each other, which is apt to engender 
rust. A spreading spring will generally be 
necessary for the hour wheel, if the correct 
shake is not produced itself by the minute 
work or the hands themselves. 

When the hands have been mounted the 
watch is ready for service, and only requires 
timing. With a cylinder watch it is well not 
to put the regulator entirely on “ fast,” be¬ 
cause every such watch, after the course of 
a few months, has an inclination to lose, and 
the regulator must stand so that a subse¬ 
quent difference of rate can be corrected. 

The timing of a watch requires so much 
expert skill that we omit describing it. 


TO CLEAN A WATCH. 

T AKE the watch all apart and immerse in 
benzine, do not leave the cap jewel and 
jewel slip attached to cock and potence, or 
the potence to the plate, etc., but have 
everything apart so that each piece can be 
thoroughly cleaned. Take each piece out 
separately and dry with clean linen rag, and 
brush all the parts with clean brush, charged 
with billiard chalk and subsequently rubbed 
over a bone or dry crust of bread; be very 
careful to get the jewel holes thoroughly 
clean and bright, and leave no trace of dust 
between pinion leaves, wheel teeth, etc.; use 
watchmaker’s tissue paper for holding parts 
in to clean ; this paper is for sale by material 
dealers for 50 or 60 cents a box, contain¬ 
ing 1,000 sheets ; it is much better than ordi¬ 
nary tissue paper, as it lasts much longer and 
there is no “ fluff,” which is an important con¬ 
sideration. When everything is thoroughly 
cleaned, put the movement together, oil the 
mainspring liberally but not excessively ; also 
the fusee pivot holes and the large center 
hole ; be careful not to place so much oil 
that it will run on the plates or down the 
arbor, or it will be drawn off and be of little 
use where it is intended to be. In oiling 
the balance jewel holes, sharpen up a piece 
of pegwood and insert in the holes to insure 
the oil running down on the cap jewels, and 
then insert a little more oil; also be very 
careful in oiling scape teeth; too much will 
get to the body of the wheel, all over the 
pallets and on to the fork ; a little on the tips 
of the teeth is all that is needed. 

If the balance is now inserted and pinned 
so that the hairspring is flat and concentric 
and plays evenly between the regulator pins, 


the watch will start off with a fine motion, 
and will continue to run well and give the 
customer the best of satisfaction. 


TO CLEAN WATCHES WITH CYA¬ 
NIDE OF POTASSIUM. 

B EFORE detailing the process of cleaning 
a watch with cyanide of potassium, the 
Circular cannot desist from cautioning 
watchmakers who use it; while useful in its 
place, cyanide is dangerous and must be used 
with great care—dangerous to the person 
using it, to the gilding of the parts put into 
it, if allowed to remain too long—and danger¬ 
ous to all steel articles around which can be 
reached by its vapors. If not thoroughly 
cleaned off, the trace of it remaining on the 
pieces will evaporize on the watch when put 
together, and rust the steel works of the 
movement. With this understanding on the 
part of the Circular it details the process 
of cleaning a watch by the use of cyanide 
of potassium. A small piece of the cyanide 
is dissolved in a common drinking glass filled 
with water, or, what is better, a wide-mouthed 
bottle with ground stopper. The movement 
to be cleaned is taken apart, and the balance, 
the lever, and other steel parts are placed in 
benzine. If the balance jewels are in set¬ 
tings, they are removed and also placed in 
the benzine. The plates and wheels are 
strung on a small brass or copper wire, bent 
so as to form a catch, similar to a safety pin 
with the pin part extended to hold it by, and 
dipped into the cyanide, then well rinsed in 
clean water (warm water is best), and then 
in alcohol, and placed in sawdust to dry. 
When dry, brush only enough to remove the 
sawdust. The parts in the benzine are 
cleaned in the usual way. 


REPAIRING AND EXAMINING 
WATCHES.—METHODS. 

E XPEDITION and certainty in watch¬ 
making and repairing are primarily se¬ 
cured, says Claudius Saunier, by proceed¬ 
ing on a definite system both in the 
preliminary examination of the watch and 
in details of construction or repairing. The 
best watchmakers, and practical men gener¬ 
ally, take their work in a certain order, from 
which any departure is exceptional. By this 
means they avoid the necessity of doing work 
twice over and of frequently taking up the 
same piece ; a circumstance that often occurs 


I 





8 


CASE, GLASS, DIAL, DOME. 


with young watchmakers, owing to forgetful¬ 
ness and to a want of sequence in their ideas. 
They should from the first accustom them¬ 
selves to working methodically on a definite 
system. 

It must, however, be understood that no 
method can be inflexible, nor can it be 
equally advantageous for different individ¬ 
uals, because men differ in regard to manual 
dexterity, goodness of eyesight and of mem¬ 
ory, power of associating their ideas, etc. 
A system that is suitable to a person of un- 
excitable temperament will have to be modi¬ 
fied by one who is oppositely disposed. 
Every one will be able to decide for himself 
as to the best system to adopt and the order 
in which to take up his daily work. These 
preliminary observations appear necessary, 
because the method explained below of ex¬ 
amining a Geneva watch has been regarded 
by some as too long and minute. We would 
urge any young watchmaker who hears such 
ideas advanced to assure himself that it is a 
mistake, because the system here explained 
is only put forward subject to the modifica¬ 
tions that experience suggests; and it is to 
be observed that many of the operations 
given can be performed more rapidly than 
they can be described. 

When a watchmaker experiences a great 
loss of time, does it not usually arise from 
the fact that he is obliged to take a watch 
down, or nearly so, after its repairing and 
examination were thought to have been 
completed; or when a watch that has been 
repaired is brought back to be examined be¬ 
fore the ordinary period of cleaning haj 
elapsed ? Let him add together the numerous 
hours spent in this kind of thankless work, 
let him sum up the worries experienced, and 
the discredit, etc., to which he has been sub¬ 
jected, and he will see that systematic work 
would have saved him both loss of money 
and loss of credit. _ 

EXTERNAL EXAMINATION OF THE 
WATCH. 

N the following paragraphs, when the 
manner in which a given fault is not in¬ 
dicated at once, explanations will at a sub¬ 
sequent time be given. 


CASE, GLASS, DIAL, DOME. 

LANCE at the case in order to ascertain 
that it has not received a blow or been 
subjected to pressure ; that the joints and fly- 


springs work well; and that the hands, in 
rotating, touch neither the glass nor dial. 
By laying the nail on the surface of the 
glass, it will be easy to see whether there is 
sufficient freedom between the socket of the 
hand and the glass. In case of doubt, place 
a small piece of paper on the hand, close the 
bezel, and tap the glass with the finger while 
the watch is in an inclined position. If free, 
the paper will be displaced. 

The set-hands square should be rounded 
at the end, and a trifle below the level of the 
dome, in order to avoid the possibility of 
contact in case of any accidental bending of 
the back of the watch, and the dome must 
not press on the balance-cock wing or the 
central dust cap (if present). The above 
remark also applies to the winding square of 
a fusee watch. 

There must be sufficient freedom between 
the going-barrel teeth and the banking-pin 
of the balance on one hand, and the internal 
rim of the case, the fly-springs, and the joints 
on the other. Otherwise there is danger of 
contacts when the case is closed, which oc¬ 
casions irregularity and stoppage often diffi¬ 
cult to detect. 

The dome must be at a sufficient distance 
* from all parts of the movement, more espe¬ 
cially the balance-cock. If there is any oc¬ 
casion for doubt on this point, put a thin 
layer of rouge on the parts that are most 
prominent. Close the case, and, holding it 
in one hand to the ear, apply a pressure, at 
all parts of the back with a finger of the 
other hand, listening attentively in order to 
ascertain whether the vibrations are inter¬ 
fered with. If the interval is insufficient, a 
trace of rouge will be found on the inside of 
the dome. In such a case, if the dome can¬ 
not be raised nor hollowed slightly in the 
mandrel (when formed of metal), lower as 
far as possible the index work and the bal¬ 
ance-cock wing, and fix in the plate, close 
to the balance, one or two screws with mush¬ 
room heads that will serve to raise the 
dome. 

Ascertain that the hands stand sufficiently 
apart; that the hour hand does not rub 
against the hole in the dial; and that the 
minute hand does not come nearer to the 
dial in one place than in another—a fault 
which may arise either from the dial not be¬ 
ing flat or from the center wheel being badly 
planted. 

Remove the movement from its case, after 
making sure that it is held firmly by the 





ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 


9 


locking screws; take off the hands, and see 
that the hour wheel has the right amount of 
play; this freedom may be diminished if re¬ 
quired by laying on the wheel small discs of 
tinsel cut out with a punch. If the dial 
presses against any part of the movement, 
or is not flat, or comes so near to any of the 
pivot holes as to draw off the oil, it must 
be ground away until a sufficient amount 
of freedom is obtained. 


TO EXAMINE A GENEVA MOVEMENT. 

A LTHOUGH the following remarksr efer 
. in the main to foreign watches with a 
Lepine movement, many are also applicable 
to the English or American watch. 


THE MOTION WORK AND HANDS. 

OTATE the wheels connecting the hour 
and minute hands by the aid of a key, 
and a glance will suffice to show whether the 
several depths, which should be light, are 
satisfactory. The wheels should not rub one 
against the other, the plate barrel, or stop 
work. The barrel should have been pre¬ 
viously examined to ascertain that it is not 
inclined to one side, because, if it were, an 
error would probably be made in estimating 
the degree of freedom. 

The set-hands arbor (the square of which 
should be a trifle smaller than that of the 
barrel arbor) must turn rather stiffly in the 
center pinion, and the cannon pinion must 
be held on the arbor sufficiently tight to 
avoid all chance of its rising and thereby be¬ 
coming loose; for this would alter the play 
of the hands and motion work. If any fault 
is found in the adjustment correct it at once, 
so as to avoid doing so after the movement 
has been cleaned. 

If it has not been done already, slightly 
round the lower end of the cannon pinion 
and the steel shield, care being taken to 
avoid forming a burr on the pinion leaves. 
These two pieces ought to rest on the ends 
of the center-pinion pivots, and at the same 
time be some distance removed from the 
plate and bar respectively. 


FREEDOM AND END-SHAKE. 

BSERVE that there is sufficient clear¬ 
ance between the plate and barrel; the 
barrel and center wheel; the several wheels 
in succession, both between themselves, their 


cocks, and sinks; between the balance on 
the one hand and its cock, the center wheel, 
fourth-wheel cock, the balance-spring coils 
and stud on the other. The fourth wheel is 
frequently found to pass too near to the 
jewel forming the lower pivot-hole of the 
escape wheel. 

The end-shake of the wheels may be tested 
by taking hold of an arm of each with 
tweezers, and lifting it. This may also be 
done in the case of the escape wheel, but, 
when the cock is slight, it will be sufficient 
to press gently upon it with a pegwood stick, 
then releasing it, and observing the apparent 
increase in the length of pivot. At the same 
time ascertain that the width and height of 
the passage in the cock is enough to allow 
the teeth, when carrying oil, to pass with 
requisite freedom. 

Holding the w r atch on a level with the 
eye, lightly raise the balance wfith a pegwood 
point several times, each time allowing it to 
fall. The variation observed in the space 
between the collet and cock will indicate the 
end-shake of the balance staff. 


ACTION OF THE ESCAPEMENT. 

HE side play of the balance pivots in 
their holes can, with practice, be easily 
estimated by touch, or this may be done by 
the eye, attentively watching the upper pivot 
through the end-stone with a powerful glass, 
while the watch lies flat, and the lower pivot 
in the same manner with the watch inverted. 
If the end-stones are not clear enough, al¬ 
though such a case is rare, remove first one 
end-stone and examine the pivot; then re¬ 
place it and remove the other. 

It should be possible to rotate the bal¬ 
ance until the banking-pin comes against 
its stop, without causing the escape wheel to 
recoil at all, or allowing a tooth to catch 
outside the cylinder behind the small lip. 
The banking-pin sometimes passes too near 
to the fourth-wheel staff. The U-arms 
should rest as nearly as possible in the mid¬ 
dle of the banking-slot of the cylinder; that 
is to Say, they should be as far from the up¬ 
per as from the under edge of this slot, so 
that the end-shakes may have free play in 
all positions of the watch. Ascertain that 
the balance spring is flat; that it coils and 
uncoils regularly without constraint; that it 
does not touch the center wheel, the stud 
or the inner curb-pin (with its second coil). 
The rapid examination of the escapement 









10 


CENTER WHEEL: BAD UPRIGHTING. 


may now be regarded as completed, if the 
watch in hand is merely cleaned after hav¬ 
ing previously gone well. 

But, if engaged on a watch that has not 
gone well previously, or if examining a new 
one, the action of the escapement must be 
thoroughly tested in the manner customary 
among workmen. 

VISIBLE DEPTHS. 

HILE the train is in motion through the 
force of the mainspring or the pressure 
of a finger against the barrel teeth, examine 
with a glass all the depths that are visible. That 
of the escapement, for example, can be easily 
seen through the jeweled pivot hole when 
this is flat, the watch being laid horizontal 
and a powerful glass used. When the action 
cannot be seen in this manner with sufficient 
distinctness, hold the watch up against the 
light and look through it. Depths that can¬ 
not be clearly seen, or about which any 
doubt exists, must be subsequently verified 
by the touch. 

If examining a new watch, it may be 
found necessary to form inclined notches at 
the end of the cocks or near the center hole 
of the plate, so as to see the action of the 
depths. But it is important that the setting 
of the jewels are not disturbed, and indeed 
that enough metal is left round these holes to 
admit of their being rebushed, if necessary. 


INVISIBLE AND DOUBTFUL DEPTHS. 

HESE must be tested by the touch, and 
the requisite corrections applied after 
having repolished the pivots, etc., as may be 
necessary. We would observe that holes a 
trifle large are less inconvenient than those 
which afford too little play, providing the 
depths are in good condition. 


LENGTH OF BALANCE PIVOTS: CEN¬ 
TERING THE BALANCE SPRING. 

EMOVE the end-stone from the chariot, 
and see that the pivot projects enough 
beyond the pivot hole when the plate is in¬ 
verted. Then remove the cock and detach 
it from the balance. Take off the balance 
spring with its collet from this latter, and 
place it on the cock inverted, so as to see 
whether the collet is central when the outer 
coil is midway between the curb pins. Re¬ 
move the cock end-stone and end-stone cap, 
place the top balance pivot in its hole and 


see that it projects a little beyond the pivot 
hole. 

Place the balance in the figure-of-8 caliper 
to test its truth, and, at the same time, to 
see that it is sufficiently in poise; it must be 
remembered, however, that the balance is 
sometimes put out of poise intentionally. 


PLAY OF TRAIN-WHEEL PIVOTS. 

LLO W the train to run down ; if it does so 
noisily or by jerks, it may be assumed that 
some of the depths are bad in consequence 
either of the teeth being badly formed, or the 
holes too large, etc. To test the latter point, 
cause the wheel to revolve alternately in op¬ 
posite directions by applying a finger to the 
barrel or center-wheel teeth, at the same time 
noting the movement of each pivot in turn 
in its hole; a little practice, comparing sev¬ 
eral watches together, will soon enable the 
workman to judge whether the play is correct. 

The running down of the train will also 
indicate whether any pivots are bent. 

Now remove the barrel bar with its sev¬ 
eral attachments. 


CENTER WHEEL: BAD UPRIGHTING. 

EMOVE the third wheel, and, if neces¬ 
sary, test the uprighting of the center 
wheel by passing a round broach or taper 
arbor through it, and setting the plate in 
rotation about this axis, holding a card near 
the edge while doing so. This will indicate 
at once whether the axis of the wheel is at 
right angles to the plate. 

When a marked deviation is detected, or 
the holes are found to be too large, they 
must be rebushed and uprighted again. 

When, however, the error is but slight, the 
axes may be set vertical by bending the 
steady pins a little, in doing which proceed 
as follows: 

Set the bar in its place alone, the screw or 
screws being a little unscrewed, and rest the 
side of the bar opposite to that toward which 
it is to be bent against a piece of brass held 
in the vise, and strike the farther edge of the 
plate one or two sharp blows with a small 
wooden mallet. Experience alone can teach 
the workman to proportion the blow so as to 
obtain a given amount of deviation, and 
must enable him to ascertain whether it is 
desirable or not to pass a broach through 
the steady-pin holes before operating as 
above explained. Some discretion is essen¬ 
tial in practicing the method. 












WATCH REPAIRING. 


It is important that the center pivots pro¬ 
ject beyond the holes in the plate and bar. 
A circular recess is turned round the outer 
end of each of these holes so as to form res¬ 
ervoirs for oil. Owing to the neglect of 
these simple precautions, which are so easy 
to take, many watches, especially those that 
are thin, come back for repairs with their 
center pivots in a bad state, because the oil 
could not be applied in sufficient quantity, 
and has been drawn away by the cannon 
pinion or the steel shield. 

If the watch has a seconds-hand, ascer¬ 
tain by means of the caliper that its wheel 
is upright. Finally, examine each jewel to 
see that it is neither cracked nor rough at 
the edges of the hole. 


THE BARREL: TO TAKE DOWN AND 
REPAIR. 

HE side spring, which must not be too 
strong, should reach with certainty to 
the bottom of the spaces between the teeth 
of the ratchet, and this latter should be held 
steadily in position by the cap. The barrel 
may be made straight and true on its axis 
by known methods, the arbor having been 
previously put in order if required. It is a 
good plan after making the extensive repairs 
here spoken of to again test the barrel and 
center pinion depth, either by touch or by 
drilling a hole for observation. 

The screw of the star wheel must not pro¬ 
ject within the cover nor rub against the 
dial; it must be reduced if either case pre¬ 
sents itself. The action of the stop-work 
must be well assured, especially when the 
actual stop occurs. It is a good plan to, as 
it were, “ round up ” the star wheel and fin¬ 
ger piece, with an emery stick, supporting 
them on arbors. There must be no possi¬ 
bility of friction between the finger and the 
bottom of the sink. 

TO TEST THE STOP-WORK. 

AKE up the winding square of an arbor, 
with the barrel, etc., in position, in a 
pair of sliding tongs or a Birch’s key; hold 
the tongs between the last three fingers and 
the palm of the left hand, the first finger 
and thumb being applied to the circumfer¬ 
ence of the barrel so as to rotate it, first 
in one direction and then in the other. 
During this movement, take a pegwood point 
in the right hand, and try to turn the star 


11 

wheel against the direction in which it would 
be impelled by the finger. 


WATCH REPAIRING. 

ATCHMAKERS will continue to re¬ 
pair the fourth pinion as long as it can 
be repaired, says Mr. Ganney, although in 
many cases it will not only be better but 
quicker to replace it with a new one, and I 
will briefly describe the method of working 
in a new fourth pinion. 

Having selected a pinion of the correct 
size for the third wheel, and fixed to the 
long arbor an old screw ferrule, cut a thin 
boxwood slip to a thin edge, and with rather 
sharp red-stuff and oil proceed to polish out 
the leaves, resting the pinion on a hard cork 
or piece of soft wood. The screw ferrule 
on the arbor enables you to press the first 
finger of the left hand against it, and thus 
the pinion is held while polishing; the natu¬ 
ral elasticity of the cork or wood allows the 
pinion to give a little to the motion of the 
polisher, thus keeping it flat. The leaves 
having been polished out with wet red-stuff, 
and finished with fine stuff or diamantine, 
the truth of the leaves can be tested by run¬ 
ning in the turns. (Should the centers of 
pinion not be perfect, they must be made so 
before trying it, by turning through a run¬ 
ner.) Should the leaved portion or pinion 
on trial prove out of truth, it must be cor¬ 
rected in the following manner, at the same 
time I may caution those whose experience 
in the work is not great, that pinions are 
occasionally met with which it is impossible 
to get true, owing to one or two leaves be¬ 
ing cut deeper than the rest from some fault 
in the cutting engine; such should unhesi¬ 
tatingly be rejected as useless. 

If, while the pinion is in the turns, a piece 
of soft lead-pencil is held on the rest so that 
its point just touches the top of leaves, those 
that are furthest from the corner will be 
marked, thus forming a guide for the correc¬ 
tion of the arbor. The marked side of the 
arbor being placed downward , in contact 
with^either a soft steel or brass stake, the 
upper or hollow side can be stretched by a 
few light blows from the pane of a small 
hammer; the blows should be distributed at 
equal distances over the arbor, and, as these 
pinions are usually rather soft, some care is 
required not to overdo it. Having by this 
means straightened the leaves to run true, 
the arbors can be shortened to little more 








WATCH REPAIRING. 


I 2 

than the ultimate length of the pinion, and 
the centers turned true. Previous to com¬ 
mencing to work in the pinion, some little 
alteration is necessary to the following 
points: In some watches the banking, in¬ 
stead of being against a steed in the cock, 
is against the arbor of the fourth wheel; in 
this case the diameter of the arbor is of im¬ 
portance, as if too small and the watch caused 
to back by external agitation, the pin would 
jam against the arbor of the fourth wheel 
and stop the watch. Again, in some calipers 
of movements, the fourth pinion head comes 
close to the plane of the balance, and in 
some positions, if the pinion head is too 
high, or from excess of end-shake the bank¬ 
ing pin touches it, forming a cause of stop¬ 
page rather difficult to detect sometimes. 

The old pinion being removed from the 
wheel, all the measurements can be taken 
directly from it. The first thing will be to 
turn down the leaves to form a seat for the 
wheel, measuring the height from the pinion 
face. Care must be taken in fitting a pinion 
to an old wheel that the leaves fit into the 
marks made by the old pinion, otherwise a 
difficulty will be found in securing the wheel. 
Having fitted the wheel, try its truth in round 
in the turns, and, if untrue, shift its position 
on the pinion until it runs quite true, then 
mark the wheel and a leaf of pinion, so that 
its position can be found again. You will 
now shorten the leaves, leaving just sufficient 
to rivet soundly. If too much is left to be 
riveted the pinion face will be bulged and 
split. If the leaves project the thickness of 
a sheet of paper (io millimeters), it will be 
sufficient (if the wheel fits properly) and 
should be but slightly undercut to insure a 
sound rivet. You will now rivet on the 
wheel, using a steel or bell-metal stake to 
support the pinion, and a polished steel 
punch of a size that fits just freely over the 
arbor. A piece of tissue paper between the 
face of pinion and stake will protect it dur¬ 
ing the riveting, and if care is taken to shift 
the wheel a little every blow, the wheel will 
be secured true and flat. The face of rivets 
can be turned flat and glossed and the hol¬ 
low cut. The arbor should now be turned 
to size, leaving a slight shoulder close to the 
wheel to prevent the polisher coming in con¬ 
tact with it. The arbor can now be pol¬ 
ished, burnished and the position of the up¬ 
per pivot shoulder marked on it, measuring 
from the pinion face with the tenth measure. 
The pivot being turned down to within three 


degrees of its proper size, the pinion can be 
reversed in the centers and the seconds pivot 
turned down, its position being fixed by 
measuring from the upper pivot shoulder. 
The pivots being smoothed with red-stuff are 
burnished on the Jacot tool to size, leaving 
only the rounding, up and turning off the 
extreme corners to complete the work. I 
may remark that the size of hollow necessary 
in the pinion face is regulated by the length 
of shoulder there is. Where this is extremely 
short, a hollow of considerable depth and 
breadth is required; on the other hand, 
where the shoulder is of considerable length, 
a small hollow will suffice. 


An excessive end-shake to a barrel will 
often cause considerable trouble in more than 
one way, says British Horologist; but with 
the Geneva barrel we mostly notice the effect 
by seeing where the center wheel has left its 
marks by coming in contact with the surface 
of the barrel in some cases, while in other 
cases the teeth of the barrel have been left 
in such a rough state that freedom is impos¬ 
sible. I think that every barrel ought to 
have the top part of the teeth beveled off, 
which would insure freedom in this part, 
providing that the height of the 'center wheel 
was above the flat surface of the barrel; but, 
as it is, the barrel teeth are cut and the burr 
is left in its rough state, hence so many foul- 
ings of the center wheel, and all this would 
be avoided if the barrel teeth were properly 
beveled at the time of manufacture. 

Of course, some of the better class of 
watches are left correct in this respect, but, 
for the sake of so little extra trouble, I think 
the commonest watch might be done so, as 
the job would not take a minute to put right, 
but if it is left for the repairer to bevel off, in 
order to free the center wheel after it has had 
considerable chafing, it not only spoils the 
appearance of the under side of the center 
wheel, but the gilding is taken from the edge 
of the barrel-teeth, therefore we have an un¬ 
sightly piece of patchwork. I am aware 
that the job may be done without spoiling 
its appearance very much, if we are a little 
careful in the shape of the bevel, and polish 
the part that has been in contact with the 
graver; but to do this we should not let the 
graver go much beyond the bottom of the 
teeth, only just enough to make sure of re¬ 
moving all the burr, then it will look very 
well with its polished edge. I have some¬ 
times really made an improvement in the ap- 



WATCH REPAIRING. 


J 3 


pearance by this operation, for it does not 
look first-class to see gilding done upon a 
wheel that has such rough burr left after the 
cutting engine. 

Now, there are times when this beveling 
off will not free the center wheel and barrel; 
when this is the case we must look for other 
cures; or, perhaps, I should rather say, we 
should look for other causes. In most cases 
the cause that is more frequently found than 
any other is the end-shake of the barrel 
arbor. There is more than one way to cor¬ 
rect this. We will suppose the excessive 
end-shake will allow the barrel to get too 
high and foul with the center wheel when 
the inside shoulder of the barrel is in contact 
with the top shoulder of the barrel arbor; 
yet we find that if we press the barrel down 
so that the shoulder on the barrel lid is in 
contact with the bottom shoulder of the ar¬ 
bor, there is then sufficient freedom for the 
center wheel. Some would cure this by 
simply striking the center of barrel a sharp 
blow on a large round-headed punch, which 
would lessen the end-shake of the barrel ar¬ 
bor, and most likely correct the fault. But 
suppose this blow also puts the barrel out of 
truth, and the workman will very likely have 
produced a greater evil than before, and one 
which is corrected with much greater diffi¬ 
culty. It is better, therefore, to try some 
other method sooner than run the risk of 
ruining the barrel. Suppose we plant a small 
collet upon the barrel arbor—in this case at 
the top shoulder—this will have the required 
effect. Of course, we must have the collet 
a little smaller in diameter than the barrel 
arbor, while the hole in the collet should be 
only just large enough to fit on the shoulder; 
the thickness will vary according to the re¬ 
quired amount in order to correct the end- 
shake. I may say here that a barrel end- 
shake should never be more than just free. 
Just see the detrimental effects of, in some 
cases, even the least amount of end-shake, 
where the fusee and chain are used. I have 
no doubt but that the most of my readers 
have, at some time or other, had a little 
trouble in this particular. With a very flat 
fusee watch the least thing in end-shake, 
either in the barrel or fusee, will cause the 
chain to run out of the fusee grooves. We 
then know what follows. Now, there are 
many who try to remedy this defect by clos¬ 
ing the holes in the plate, which is done in 
many cases with a punch ; this simply means 
that the next man who sees the job will be 


liable to ask if there has been a blacksmith 
at work. Yes, there are times when these 
punches are used, when it is a shame to use 
them. Why hammer and bruise a plate when 
the job can be done without any such meth¬ 
ods ? There is nothing that looks so bad to 
a practical man as to see a plate smashed 
about with a punch. It may be excusable 
to use a punch to close a hole in an old 
thirty-hour clock, but even in this it is doubt¬ 
ful, in these days of bouchons. I have seen 
watches and clocks hammered about in such 
a style that we are inclined to ask if the man 
had any conscience to smash plates about in 
such a wanton manner. Then, again, it is 
not only the look of the butchery; but just 
see what kind of a surface the hole has for 
the pivot to work in. Take, for instance, 
the top hole of the fusee, it will always near 
toward the barrel; hence, if the hole is closed, 
it has to be done on the side nearest the 
barrel, in order to bring the fusee upright to 
its original position. But when it is punched 
on this side, in all probability there is only 
just one part of the hole in contact with the 
fusee top pivot, and most likely this promi¬ 
nent part will very soon become worn down 
again, and the whole job be just as bad as 
before. In fact, in some respects, it is worse, 
for now the plate has been made a trifle 
thinner where it has been punched, in ad¬ 
dition to the bad appearance. 

Now, all this can be put right without any 
such botching. If a top-plate hole has be¬ 
come worn somewhat oblong, the proper 
way to put it right is to put a new hole in 
the place of the old ; and this is very readily 
done, if we know the proper way of doing 
it. First of all, we notice if the fusee is per¬ 
fectly upright, when it is brought back to 
the side farthest from the barrel. If this 
is right while the fusee is held in this position, 
we then know that the hole will have to be 
filed with a round file, on the opposite side, 
until it is as far from the central position as 
the other side has been worn. If the hole is 
opened with a broach before this filing is 
done, the fusee will not be upright when the 
job is finished, simply because the center is, 
under such conditions, brought to the cen¬ 
ter between the outside of the worn part 
and the opposite side that has not been worn ; 
and hence it is half as far out of its original 
center as the amount the hole was worn. I 
speak of this particular here, because I know 
there are plenty w"ho commence the job by 
simply broaching the hole from its oblong 


14 


WATCH REPAIRING. 


shape to a round, regardless of the detrimen¬ 
tal effect it will bring in its train ; for they 
often find that when they have the hole fin¬ 
ished, it is just in such a position that the 
square of the fusee is making its obeisance 
to the barrel; and they wonder how that 
could have happened, for they have been 
particular in turning the hole upon a per¬ 
fectly true turning arbor; but it seems that 
they had overlooked the fact which I have 
just commented upon. It is a well-known 
fact that many will do this job without ever 
thinking about such an important item. But 
I hope these remarks will help them to re¬ 
member it in the future. 

To resume, in this manner we get the hole 
filed on this opposite side as nearly as pos¬ 
sible to the same amount. Of course, if 
the fusee has to be brought up a little more, 
we then file this side more in proportion to 
such requirements. There are times when 
the teeth of the fusee wheel run too near to 
the center wheel; this can now be altered by 
using the file to open the hole a little in the 
opposite direction to the center wheel. Af¬ 
ter the filing has been done, we can then use 
the opening broach, and make the hole per¬ 
fectly round. We are then ready to turn up 
the bouchon to fit. See that the turning ar¬ 
bor is perfectly true. If there is room for 
putting a deep hole, put it—that is, if the 
fusee square has not been squared down to 
the level of the top plate, leave the hole 
standing up above the plate. When this is 
done, the bouchon should be turned with a 
very nice shoulder, so that it rests firmly 
upon the top surface of the top plate. It 
should also be turned to a true fit in the hole. 
I should also say that, in this case, the hole 
should be opened with the broach from the 
top side, so that the bouchon can be turned 
to an exact fit. Before it is riveted in, the 
under side of the hole should be chamfered 
to receive the rivet. If we are particular in 
getting the exact length for riveting over, 
we may perhaps finish it all right without 
having to use the mandrel in order to take 
off the surplus brass so that the end-shake is 
free. When we have made the hole secure, 
we then have to be particular in opening the 
hole to fit the fusee top pivot. If we let the 
broach get out of upright, we shall give a very 
queer shape to the hole, as it will not go 
through the plate at right angles, hence the 
sides of the hole will not touch the pivot all 
along their entire length, so that the pivot 
would be free when not in position, but as 


soon as the bottom pivot is in its hole, the 
top pivot binds; this is all avoided if we 
keep the broach upright while getting to 
size. When right, we simply chamfer the 
top a little for the oil, and the job is com¬ 
plete. If careful in riveting, it would take 
a close examination to tell that the new hole 
has been put in. _ 

As a guide to the springer in selecting a 
proper spring, says Mr. Ganney, in his excel¬ 
lent series on repairing, the weight of the 
balance is used. When new work is being 
sprung, the springer associates certain sizes 
and weights of balances with springs of a cer¬ 
tain number and strength, but the repairer can 
only gauge by lifting up the balance by the 
eye of the new spring, and noting its elonga¬ 
tion by the weight. Springs are now too cheap 
to make as wanted, and the wire is not kept as 
a material as formerly; but the old method 
of making a spring, by drawing the wire into 
a spiral with a point of a joint pusher, and 
working the spring and pusher entirely with 
the thumb and forefinger, is very useful in 
setting the outer coils of old springs into 
shape again. Springing tweezers are made 
with the points concave and convex, so as to 
close or open the turns of the spring, as may 
be required; a spring blueing-tool is also 
very useful, or an ordinary blueing-pan, with 
the spring under a piece of glass, and a 
weight on it to keep it flat, will do. After 
blueing the spring, and letting it cool before 
removal, it will come out quite flat; the other 
operations connected with the spring, such 
as making a new stud, and properly fitting 
the index pins, are very simple and obvious, 
yet in no point of the watch is so much 
carelessness exhibited as in these ; being sim¬ 
ple jobs, they are supposed to want, and, in¬ 
deed, do get little alteration. 

The hairspring collet often gives trouble, 
owing to bad fitting, and want of freedom 
of the cock and the screw heads of index 
piece. I usually put my watches in beat by 
moving the collet with a fine screw-driver or 
drill in the slot, without shifting the stud out 
of the cock, resting the cock on the board 
paper, and simply drawing the balance a 
sufficient distance to get at the collet. I find 
out of beat a greater source of stoppage 
than anything else, and suppose the trouble 
and danger attending frequent removal of 
spring and balance the reason it is neglected, 
and devised this plan to save trouble, and 
insure accuracy of beat. With English 



WATCH REPAIRING. 


*5 


sprung arbor watches it is a very much easier 
plan, as a bar of the balance, when the cock 
is removed, may be held by a stout pair of 
tweezers to free the bottom hole, and the 
alteration made at once by moving the col¬ 
let. I earned a good fee in a minute or two 
by this plan of putting a watch into perfect 
beat, which the owner declared had never 
gone a month without an occasional stop¬ 
page, though he had had it in the hands of 
all the best men he could fifld in London for 
a number of years, who all said it was a first- 
class made watch, but none had been able to 
cure it. Thinking it useless to look for or¬ 
dinary faults, as the watch seemed in per¬ 
fect order, and all that a watch ought to be, 
I simply wore it, as I took it on the no cure 
no pay principle ; and when it stopped, going 
on again before it could be opened, I no¬ 
ticed that it had very low angle pallets and 
rather strong lockings, and appeared very 
slightly out of beat on the second or dis¬ 
charging pallet. This was altered and it was 
put slightly out of beat on the other pallet, 
as the friction on the second pallet is that 
which necessitates the oil, and is known as 
engaging-friction, the surfaces opposing each 
other as they engage in work. The watch 
has given perfect satisfaction ever since, show- 
• ing the importance of slight errors, and that 
one small error may be made to compensate 
another. Watches being out of beat are not 
very noticeable when fresh oiled and clean; 
but as the dirt and difficulties accumulate, 
the effect is very striking, and where escape¬ 
ments are unequal, the spring may be shifted 
to make the conditions more equal in per¬ 
formance. 

The condition of the jewels in Swiss work 
is of some considerable importance, and if 
the repairer aspires to be a good jeweler, 
considerable practice with the lathe and 
mandrel will be necessary. If it is only de¬ 
sired to replace holes from a stock kept for 
that purpose, the holes can generally be re¬ 
placed without much troubje, raising the edge 
of the setting at one side, 61 allow of the in¬ 
sertion of the jewel, and securing it in posi¬ 
tion by rubbing the setting well over the stone 
with a well-burnished rounding-center in a 
handle; a strong and fine pointed arbor will 
do to raise the edge for the insertion of the 
stone. Where a setting is too badly injured 
to hold a stone properly, an English hole 
with brass setting may be fitted in a chamfer, 
or soldered in ; loose jewels may always be 
tightened with a rounding-arbor or center, 


and should always be tried for tightness, as 
troublesome variations of depth and freedoms 
are caused, which often escape observation. 

To make a cock to the escape wheel— 
often on account of its being very much 
turned to free the teeth, it is liable to acci¬ 
dents—it is first desirable to get a sound slip 
of brass well hammered. Having drilled the 
screw hole and filed it to the proper shape, 
it must be firmly screwed down, and the 
steady-pin holes drilled through; the drill 
fitting the hole in the plate easily, the open¬ 
ing of the holes in cock and plate must be 
carefully done, and the steady-pins well 
fitted, or the cock is useless. The top pivot 
hole must now be made in the mandrel or 
uprighting tool; then an old upper plate 
should have some shellac melted on it, and 
placed in the mandrel; the flame of a spirit 
lamp, or other heat, applied, the cock is 
placed on it, and centered from the pivot 
hole; the slide-rest cutter is then used to 
turn the inside of the cock perfectly flat, and 
the slot, to free the wheel teeth, is cut a 
sufficient depth. When removed, the next 
thing will be to make the wheel the right 
height by filing away the superfluous brass, 
then to free the cock of the balance, and try 
the escapement, and send it for jeweling. If 
desired, the jeweler will do all the turning 
and mandrel work. If finished off with 
water-of-Ayre stone or buff, the cock will be 
more durable than when gilt. If not con¬ 
venient to bend the cock, the holes should be 
plugged with a fine wire, and a hole made 
the same as a verge hole, with a fine drill 
and a bottoming broach, with end well bur¬ 
nished. This kind of hole will give better 
results than a common jewel hole, if prop¬ 
erly made, and is in use in all the original 
escapements of the inventor of the horizon¬ 
tal (cylinder) escapement, George Graham. 
A good inside chamfer must be made to hold 
the oil; this kind of hole will also do good 
service for the balance holes, and is prefer¬ 
able to making shift with any cracked or bad 
jewel hole, if the points are well rounded 
and burnished. 

It is much to be regretted that watch 
jewelers do not contribute more to the litera¬ 
ture of the art. There is a good opportunity 
for any enterprising young jeweler to gain 
fame and business by descanting on the va¬ 
rious qualities, and means of judging the 
quality and value of jewel holes, and show¬ 
ing in what way value is imparted, so that 
those who want to patronize this art may do- 


i6 


TOOLS USED IN REPAIRING. 


so without discrimination. To most watch¬ 
makers, one jewel hole is much the same as 
another, unless it is cracked, and yet there 
is as much difference in watch jeweling as 
watch pivoting; the one, in fact, being a 
counterpart of the other. There seems to be 
some secret understanding among watch 
jewelers not to impart information, as appli¬ 
cations for information by means of contri¬ 
butions to literature, have been refused, on 
the ground of injuring the interests of that 
branch. Saunier’s valuable work, though 
very copious and full on all other subjects, 
gives very little information on the subject; 
or is it that very little can be said of cutting 
one stone with the dust of a harder one ? 
The stone-mason rubbing marble into shape 
with sand and water illustrates the primitive 
idea; the ruby-hole maker, cutting his hole 
with the next hardest substance, diamond and 
diamond dust, shows the other extreme of 
the same process. 


TOOLS USED IN REPAIRING. 

PEAKING of centers, another center 
made of brass is called the rounding-up 
center, and used for making pivots right 
lengths and rounding on burnishing them. 
It is simply a number of holes round a brass 
center, which has been filed sufficiently thin 
to allow the finest and shortest pivots to 
protrude; the holes must be of various de¬ 
grees of fineness, and no more pivot allowed 
through than necessary, as the file or bur¬ 
nisher will break them off. Usually, the 
pinions to common Swiss works are very 
soft; this, though greatly facilitating their 
turning, when the work is large, becomes a 
troublesome quality as it gets fine; and it 
may be asserted that a fine pivot cannot be 
made from soft steel, as it will not stand the 
necessary pressure to turn or polish it to any 
degree of fineness, and no amount of finish 
can be displayed on soft steel, as it will not 
polish to advantage. In putting in a new 
third pinion, it is necessary to undercut the 
shoulder and leave a hollow in the pinion, 
or the oil may work into the leaves of the 
pinion and center-wheel teeth; before the 
wheel is riveted to the pinion, the balance 
should be put in to see if it is free, as in 
some calipers the circle intersects. The 
undercutting of the fourth pinion at the bot¬ 
tom pivot is also necessary to keep the oil in 
the sink, and the pinion left no higher than 
the third wheel requires, or it may foul the 


balance or banking-pin; in polishing the 
second, the best pivoters usually polish it 
like any other arbor, but if nervous or heavy- 
handed, a special brass center with half of 
its diameter filed away, and a convenient slit 
for the pivot to rest nearly all its length in 
may be used, but I do not recommend it, 
as a careless slip will destroy the pivot, which 
otherwise in the turns would have a certain 
amount of elasticity. The resting of the lit¬ 
tle finger on a convenient part of the turns, 
and letting it move with the polisher, is an 
item in polishing pivots, the finger being 
used to regulate the pressure of the arm and 
hand; the most troublesome pinion to pivot 
is the Geneva scape pinion, owing to its hav¬ 
ing no arbor. If a very thin and small brass 
ferrule is used, well chamfered to allow all 
parts of the pinion at its shortest to be 
turned, it may be opened to fit the pinion 
tightly, and the pinion driven in will hold 
sufficiently to pivot, or it may be fitted 
loosely, and shellac used to secure it to the 
ferrule. The value of good, pointed centers 
will be proved in pivoting this pinion, as it 
cannot possibly be done without them. The 
rivet should be well undercut and fitted to 
the wheel, or the riveting will raise a burr 
in the pinion where it acts in the fourth 
wheel; a few light blows must complete this 
riveting. 

Good bows being necessary complements 
to good turns, the watch repairer cannot 
dispense with less than four, varying in 
length from 12 to 24 inches, and in strength 
from that sufficient only to make a balance 
pivot, with horse or human hair, without 
slipping on the ferrule when turning with a 
fine, pointed graver; and the others increas¬ 
ing in strength to what is required in turning 
barrel arbors, stoppings, and the larger drill¬ 
ing operations in watchwork; for the ordi¬ 
nary, every-day watch pivots and shoulders 
are sufficiently well finished with a cutting 
burnisher, one side of which is rubbed on a 
board or strip of lead charged with emery, 
as a few rubs on the small stone used by 
shoemakers to whet their knives for leather 
cutting is a handy substitute, and gives the 
requisite cutting power, and then a few rubs 
with burnisher, polished on a well-used bur- 
nishing-board, on which smooth emery has 
been distributed, will give a perfectly smooth 
and black pivot. The best English pivoters 
finish their pivots with the smooth burnisher 
in this way to harden them, though they 
have been previously highly polished with 




TOOLS USED IN REPAIRING. 


a soft steel polisher, which leaves the 
shoulder perfectly square and well polished. 
Using bell-metal polishers to finish, though 
putting on a higher gloss, destroys the 
squareness of the shoulder; the shoulders 
are protected from injury whilst burnishing 
the pivot by a small tissue-paper collet on 
the pivot, or by polishing the edge of the 
burnisher with a bell-metal polisher, and 
burnishing the pivot by moving the burnisher 
down (not up) the pivot as it revolves. 
Arbors are burnished in the same way, left 
from the steel polisher, and not too fine red- 
stuff in preference to more highly polishing 
bell-metal, as a square shoulder on the arbor 
is a sine qua non in good pivoting, and a too 
highly polished arbor will not burnish, but 
rubs brown or fox-y under the burnisher; 
facing and rivet tools are simply pieces of 
iron wire, a tin tack, or an old nail with a 
hole in it, in which the arbor fits loosely, and 
these being filed and charged with polishing 
crocus, the pinion is revolved against them 
with a very weak bow, until the requisite 
finish is attained; the finest finish on faces 
is got from a tool made from a horse-shoe 
nail, the iron being a particular Swedish 
quality, and the hammering it receives in 
wear imparting qualities that cause the 
pivoter who finds one to prize it like a 
diamond; otherwise, a bell-metal tool to 
finish the face is necessary, but only to give 
a few finishing rubs, as it soon loses the flat¬ 
ness imparted by the file, and makes the 
face or rivet rounding; a very careful stroke 
of the bow is necessary, as only a back cen¬ 
ter is used, and the tool itself held in the 
hand forming the other center for the pinion 
to revolve in. The pressure of the hand is 
carefully regulated to insure a light and 
equal pressure ; the progress of the face may 
be known by the noise the pinion makes; 
as it works the polishing stuff dry, it begins 
to sing or squeak, and this is the signal for 
ceasing operations. If all the parts of the 
face are well polished and the extreme edges 
as bright as the rest, it will do; if not, the 
tool must be refiled and fresh stuff applied, 
and the operation patiently repeated. More 
patience in this job is required than any 
other in watchwork, and though apparently 
most simple, and we may add the most 
unnecessary in watchwork, there are few 
who excel at it. The polishing of a square 
shoulder and pivot being a work of celerity, 
firmness, and skill, those who do the one 
often fail at the other, as shown by escape¬ 


*7 

ment makers, who make good pivots and 
bad faces to their one pinion, while the fin¬ 
isher as often as not produces better faces 
than pivots to his pinions. The repairer 
may emulate either or neither, but he ought 
to endeavor to replace old pieces with equally 
good, or consign the job to those who can. 
In large towns, he will not gain or lose much 
honor either way, his business being to get 
satisfactory performance from the watch, as 
a whole; but in putting in pieces to jobs, 
there are certain little numberless details 
that give success in action, and only the one 
who is responsible for the performance of 
the watch seems able to appreciate or de¬ 
velop them. This is why cheap, subdivided 
watchwork is a failure. 


It happens sometimes that the cylinder 
pivots are bent, continues our author, an 
event which is of frequent occurrence, in the 
remedying of which some workmen have 
recourse to a pair of smooth plyers, made 
just hot enough to turn the color of the pivot 
to be straightened to a blue ; but in this class 
of work, it is rare to meet with a pivot so 
hard as to require this treatment. It will 
generally be sufficient, after filling the body 
of the cylinder with shellac, and at the same 
time fixing either a bone or brass ferrule, to 
use a bell-metal polisher on the Jacot tool, 
taking care to select a notch slightly larger 
than the pivot, which you have previously 
measured with the gauge that accompanies 
the tool for that purpose. You will then 
use a smaller notch, finishing with a bur¬ 
nisher expressly made for this tool, and sharp¬ 
ened No. i emery stone, or emery of similar 
coarseness on zinc or lead block ; the latter 
being the better material, the most conven¬ 
ient size being a square block about seven 
inches long and one and one-quarter inches 
wide, got up true on each of its four sides. 
The burnisher should be put in a Swiss 
handle, similar to a pen-holder and nearly 
as long, fastened in with shellac or sealing- 
wax ; it can thus be set perfectly straight 
with the handle. In sharpening, the block 
should rest against the front of the work- 
board, pointing from you, and plentifully 
supplied with emery and oil, mixed not too 
thickly; the handle held lightly in the right 
hand, and the first finger of the left applied 
on the top of the burnisher, the stroke should 
be from point to heel, lifting it from the 
block for the return stroke. For reducing 



i8 


PIVOTING A CYLINDER. 


a pivot, the burnisher should be cut on a 
No. 2 stone or emery of a similar grade. 

Should a pivot be broken in this process, 
a new plug will be necessary; the removal 
of the old plug should be done by means of 
a punch, of a knee shape, resting the shell 
of the cylinder on a brass stake for that 
purpose; the stake should have a slight 
recess turned in it, just large enough to 
admit the cylinder, and the hole sufficiently 
large to admit the plug when driven out; a 
slight tap with a light hammer will remove 
the plug, and a new one should be turned 
from a piece of staff steel, which has been 
previously hardened and tempered, let down 
to a full blue color. The part which enters 
the cylinder should be perfectly parallel, not 
tapered, or the shell would probably be 
burst in putting it in ; if you have a microm¬ 
eter to measure it with, it is a simple mat¬ 
ter. Having fitted the plug to the shell (it 
should enter about one-third of the distance 
it has to go), the center has to be cut off 
and the head made flat and polished; this 
can be done in the screw-head or balance 
tool; the portion which is to form the new 
pivot and arbor you will roughly shape be¬ 
fore cutting off. _ 

PIVOTING A CYLINDER. 

T HE plug has now to be fixed in position in 
the cylinder ; some workmen use a punch 
similar to the one used to remove the plug, 
only flat on the face, resting the shell of the 
cylinder on the punch, and tapping the plug 
in with the hammer; others press the plug 
in with the extreme end of a thin, flat bur¬ 
nisher, holding the plug in a vise or a stake 
for that purpose, the latter in my opinion 
being the preferable plan. The plug has 
now to be centered; you will use for this 
purpose a steel runner similar to the one 
used for rounding up the end of a pivot, but 
with larger holes; these should be loosely 
chamfered out, hardened and polished ; the 
extreme end of the cylinder will work in one 
of these holes, which should be plentifully 
supplied with oil. The top pivot being pro¬ 
tected by running in a brass runner, having 
a hole sufficiently large to admit the pivot 
freely, the shoulder taking the thrust, you 
can thus turn the extreme end of the plug 
true with the body of the cylinder. Having 
centered the plug, it only remains to turn 
the hollow and pivot, leaving the latter three 
degrees larger than it will ultimately be re¬ 
quired, burnishing it.down this amount first 


with the rough and then with the fine bur¬ 
nisher. 

If the upper pivot is the one broken, it 
will sometimes be possible with a high cylin¬ 
der to do without a new plug, by knocking 
out the old one sufficiently to allow you to 
turn another pivot on it; at the same time, 
this is not so good as replacing the plug with 
a new one, as the plug has a tendency to 
draw oil away from the wheel teeth. It 
will not be necessary to describe the method 
of replacing the upper plug, as it is nearly 
similar to the lower. 

There is yet another way of replacing a 
pivot that is broken, viz.: by drilling through 
the old plug and inserting a piece of steel 
somewhat larger than the shoulder of the old. 
The centering runner described when speak¬ 
ing of the new plug must be used, and a re¬ 
cess turned in the plug sufficiently deep to 
start the drill truly. Of course, before doing 
this, the cylinder is to be filled with shellac 
or sealing-wax, to enable it to stand the 
pressure. Having turned the hollow suf¬ 
ficiently deep to bury the angle of the drill, 
the centering runner is to be removed and 
replaced with one having a hole in it to take 
a drill, which, for this purpose, should be 
strong and short, and not relieved much be¬ 
hind the cutting part. If ground to cut only 
one way, and tapered in thickness to the 
point, it will work quickly and well. Al¬ 
though the plugs of Swiss cylinders are not 
very hard, it is not well to use oil to the drill; 
spirits of turpentine is the best lubricator for 
this purpose. The pressure on the drill 
which, when cutting, will be considerable, 
should be relieved at the return stroke of the 
bow ; if the drill is sufficiently hard and not 
driven too rapidly, the drilling will proceed 
pleasantly. Having drilled the plug through, 
you will insert a piece of steel, previously 
hardened, tempered, and polished down to 
size, and not too taper, or a piece of a cut¬ 
ting-pivot broach may be blued and inserted. 
Previous to inserting you will round up and 
burnish the end nicely, and any burr thrown 
up on the plug by the drill must be removed 
by a steel polisher and red-stuff, resting it on 
cork, while doing so, to keep it flat. 

The new piece can be tapped in with a 
light hammer; while resting the shell on a 
punch replace the shellac in the cylinder, 
and with the centering runner turn the 
extreme end of plug to a center. You can 
now proceed as described in making a new 
plug. 



PIVOTING A CYLINDER. 


l 9 


To repair a broken Swiss balance staff, 
the repairer may procure a rough one from 
the material warehouse, or make one by driv¬ 
ing a piece of steel wire into a brass collet or 
stopping, hardening it by heating it to a 
cherry red, and plunging it into oil or water; 
then it must be .tempered by brightening a 
portion with Arkansas stone, or otherwise, 
and, being held near a flame, let down to a 
full blue; in this condition the center must 
be filed in the pin vise, the arbor turned true, 
and the brass collet turned an approximate 
size. All parts of the arbor and collet must 
be forwarded in equal ratios, or it will come 
to grief if one pivot is turned nearly right 
size before the other arbor and back hollow 
has been turned sufficiently small. The 
douzieme and pinion gauges should be freely 
used on the broken staff, and if both pivots 
are broken, and the staff otherwise a good 
one, the broken staff will be a good guide 
for the new, and show where the shoulder 
must be for each pivot. The douzieme ap¬ 
plied outside of cock and foot jewels in the 
plate, with end-stones removed, will give the 
length of arbor and pivots, one division of 
the douzieme being allowed for end-shake. 
The arbor should be turned as short as con¬ 
venient, as long arbors, besides giving un¬ 
necessary trouble in turning, are apt to get 
bent in polishing. When the arbor has been 
turned small enough, the roller must be care¬ 
fully fitted in the process of polishing with 
cutting crocus, and the arbor must be only 
slightly tapered, as Swiss rollers have no pipe 
like the English; they must be driven on 
when fitted with a brass hollow punch, the 
right distance, the last thing, when trying 
the escapement; if too tight, they will be 
difficult to get on or off, and if at all loose, 
will not hold. Taking them off is not con¬ 
templated in the ordinary routine, and the 
riveting clams and a punch over the pivot 
must be used to remove them. A very con¬ 
venient stake is made by using a piece of 
metal with a hole large enough for the roller 
to go through; a slot is cut from this hole 
some distance to allow the arbor to pass 
along it, and the roller is thus supported all 
over at the back, and allows of force being 
used to remove it. This tool is very useful, 
also, for putting on the hairspring collet, as 
the roller can be passed underneath, allowing 
the seat for the balance to rest on the outer 
face, and saves injuring the roller, which 
must occur if the roller itself is in contact 
with a stake. 


Having finished the arbor, and roughly 
formed the part for the bottom pivot, and 
what is called a safe, that is, turning the 
arbor nearly through below the pivot, so 
that in case of a slip or catch it may break 
there, we finish the collet, and fit the balance 
and hairspring collet. The height from bot¬ 
tom of brass collet to top pivot must be care¬ 
fully noted by gauging or actual juxtaposition 
of the old and new piece, as the eye is apt 
to be deceived; and leaving the rivet rather 
high and the collet a little too long, the in¬ 
experienced will be surprised to find that the 
pivot and shoulder which appeared all right 
is just a pivot and shoulder too high, and 
the pleasure of turning or breaking a new 
pivot and shoulder out of the rough brass 
and steel will show the error he has made. 
The excellent practice of undercutting rivets 
and shoulders makes them appear as long 
again as they are, and a good graver and 
skill in using it are the sure roads to success 
at this job, the pivots being turned nearly 
right size and shape with a sharp-pointed 
graver. Then a cutting burnisher made from 
a piece of polished steel, hardened when 
made, with a rounded edge to form the con¬ 
ical shoulder; this, when sharpened on rough 
emery sticks to cut, and fine emery to bur¬ 
nish, will do all that is required for a perfect 
job in the ordinary turns. If not capable 
of turning anything finer than an arbor, the 
Jacot tool and pivot files may be used, and 
a nick being cut where the pivots are to be, 
by shifting the arbor from the large to the 
small nicks in the tool as it is reduced, a 
pivot may be worried out of the arbor with 
the pivot file, which will only be good enough 
for the commonest work. The pivots should 
be left full long and rounded the least thing 
after the balance is riveted, so that a chance 
is given of improving the freedom of the bal¬ 
ance by making the end-shake and height 
right by shortening top or bottom pivot, as 
may be most desirable. The riveting should 
be done by a half-round punch, with the 
back whetted to a sharp edge nearly. This 
will go into the rivet and drive it down as 
well as out. A blow at four different parts 
of the rivet should tighten it flat and true, 
and then the hammer applied lightly to the 
punch, whilst the balance is continually 
moved with the finger, would finish it. If 
not flat, the rivet must be hammered at the 
part where the balance projects. If there 
are three arms to the balance, it may need 
flattening by striking them with a light ham- 


20 


DUST PIPES. 


mer, or the pliers may be used with advan¬ 
tage ; resting the point of the pliers near the 
center of the balance on the arm, and using 
the edge of the balance as a fulcrum; or the 
balance may be held in the fingers and 
pressed against the edge of the workbench 
to flatten it. A combination of these plans 
is sometimes necessary. 

Escapement makers usually rub and bur¬ 
nish their balances on the staff before turning 
the pivots, by holding a pointed center 
against the rivet whilst revolving in the turns; 
but repairers will find this not so convenient 
or safe as the other plan of riveting, which 
must be adopted in the replacing of cylinders, 
and they will not get enough practice at 
both to be very reliable at either. 

Most of the directions given for the bal¬ 
ance staff are applicable to the pallet staff, 
though it differs from it, being secured to the 
lever and pallet by screwing. Working 
usually in thorough jewel holes will require 
a square-edged polisher and burnisher to 
finish the pivots. The arbor has usually a 
very thick bottom arbor or shoulder, which 
is held in the pliers when it is desired to un¬ 
screw the pallets and lever. 

In making a new staff, a piece of steel 
wire may be turned whilst it is soft, and the 
screw made on it by using the lever itself as 
the screw plate; when a good thread has 
been formed on the arbor it should be hard¬ 
ened and tempered, and the height from the 
shoulder, on which the pallet rests, carefully 
gauged, and the bottom pivot made and 
finished. The action of the wheel on the 
pallets should now be observed by screwing 
lever and pallets together, and putting them 
in, and holding the arbor as upright as pos¬ 
sible ; or putting the escape cock lightly on 
in contact with the top arbor. If the posi¬ 
tion appears right, the height should be 
gauged from the old arbor, or by filing a 
piece of brass wire until it fits between top 
and bottom holes, and gauging that for the 
height. Internal gauges may be bought, 
which are very useful for this purpose. 

When the pivot is finished, the escapement 
should be tried first without the balance. 
On moving the lever and pallets the tooth 
should have an equal amount of drop on to 
each pallet; this will prove the correct sizing 
and depth of the wheel and pallets, and an 
equal amount of run of the pallet after the 
tooth drops, before the lever comes against 
the banking which limits its motion. If 
there is much run on one pallet the other 


may not leave the tooth at all, or only just 
as the lever comes to the rest; this shows it 
out of angle ; and if the steady pins are tight 
in pallet and lever the hole must be opened, 
or the pin filed or bent to allow it to be 
shifted on the lever, so that the pallet may 
leave the tooth before the lever has traveled 
the full distance. If both pallets refuse to 
leave the teeth, it would show that the bank¬ 
ings are not wide enough ; but if the watch 
has ever gone, the fact proves the bankings 
to be wide enough; and the inability to 
leave one pallet is the same effect as in¬ 
ability to leave both, and all alterations 
which make one pallet deep make the other 
shallow in the same ratio. Common levers 
have considerable drop, and run up the pal¬ 
let as well as variable draw or retentive 
action of the wheel on the pallet. Fine 
watches allow of these actions being very 
close if the wheel drops at equal distance of 
the lever’s motion, and allows a little more 
motion of the lever before it comes to the 
banking; and then the ruby pin leaves freely 
and the guard action has a little shake be¬ 
tween the banking and roller edge, Avithout 
danger of sticking in the roller or allowing 
the wheel teeth to get off the locking face 
on to the impulse plane, until being pulled 
off by the action of the ruby pin, the escape¬ 
ment being free may be considered correct. 


MOUNTING THE DIAL. 

HE pin holes in the dial feet should be 
drilled with a very small drill, in such a 
direction that the pins will not come in the 
way of anything and will be easily gotten at; 
they should not be drilled below the surface 
of the plate, but broached until the pin 
touches it. If the hole should be a little 
below the surface it is better to lengthen the 
copper foot by squeezing it with a pair of 
blunt nippers until it is abo\ r e the plate, than 
to leave it in such a position that no pin can 
stop it. _ 

DUST PIPES. 

UST pipes are indispensable in a key¬ 
winding watch, and Avhen properly 
screwed on the plate and fitted to the case 
are expensive. This part of the watch is fre¬ 
quently treated with utter disregard, and Ave 
recently saw a very bad case of dust pipe of 
the set-hand square of a three-quarter plate 
watch. It was so constructed that if it was 
made to touch the case, it Avould press upon 






TO PUT A JEWEL PIN INTO AN AMERICAN WATCH. 


21 


the center pinion and stop the watch or make 
it go irregularly; to avoid this, the center 
parts are left with sufficient end-shake to de¬ 
feat the purpose for which it is designed. A 
solid top offers advantages in respect to 
dust, and perfects the key-winding watch to 
an important degree. 


THE BARREL ARBOR. 

F the pivots of the barrel arbor are of the 
proper shape (which they generally now are 
in the best movements, and certainly ought 
to be), the pivots and holes will only require 
smoothing, and the barrel freeing on the 
arbor. Instead of adopting the usual course 
of turning away the bosses in the barrel and 
cover to reduce the rubbing surfaces, a deep 
hollow should be turned and a shoulder 
formed on each side of the arbor of a suf¬ 
ficient width, and the bosses should be left 
on the brass as large as possible. It has 
not been the practice to snail barrel arbors 
of fusee watches, as there was no trouble 
with the adjustment of the mainspring, 
English springs being tapered and generally 
filed thin at the eye, but the arbor should be 
snailed (and they probably will be now by 
the movement makers), and the hook should 
not project beyond the thickness of the 
spring. 


SHAPE OF RUBY PINS. 

CYLINDRICAL ruby pin cannot enter 
the notch so deep as it should, and the 
driving side of the notch will work very mi¬ 
nutely toward the front part of the pin, and at 
the wheel’s drop the off side of the notch will 
be some distance from the side of the pin ; this 
vacuity between the notch and the pin is a 
loss of arc to the roller on each side of the 
discharge, and also causes some small portion 
of the lever’s arc to be non-effectual imme¬ 
diately after unlocking, for directly after un¬ 
locking, the lever will drop across the vacant 
space, which is perhaps i° of the lever’s arc 
on each side. This loss of arc by notch and 
pin often misleads persons in the arc of the 
pallet from drop to drop. When the arc of 
the balance, from drop to drop, is about 30 0 , 
and the roller, from staff to pin, is about one- 
third length of the lever, the arc of the pal¬ 
lets is supposed to be io°—they are more 
than io°, generally 12°—the depths make a 
greater arc in unlocking than watchmakers 
are aware of. 


THE PALLETS AND THEIR FUNC¬ 
TIONS. 

ACH of the two pallets is shaped for the 
double purpose of impulse and locking ; 
by turning the escape wheel forward, a tooth 
of the wheel passes over one of the impulse 
planes, and thereby turns the pallets and 
lever together through a small arc of perhaps 
9 0 ; and as the roller and balance are linked 
to the lever by the pin and notch, the bal¬ 
ance also is simultaneously turned through 
an arc, the balance’s arc always being much 
greater than the lever’s arc, according to the 
ratio existing between the radii and the small 
roller and long lever. At the extreme end 
of the pallet plane the impulse action ceases, 
and another tooth of the escape wheel drops 
on to one of the opposite lockings, stopping 
all the machinery of the watch except the 
balance and roller, for at the instant of the 
escape wheel’s drop the roller jewel pin 
passes out of, or away from, the open notch 
of the lever, and the balance and roller re¬ 
volve by themselves, perfectly detached from 
the rest of the mechanism of the watch. 


TO PUT A JEWEL PIN INTO AN 
AMERICAN WATCH. 

N putting in a jewel pin, the repairer 
should always remove the lever from the 
movement, so as to get at the exact size of 
the fork, selecting a jewel pin which has only 
sufficient side-shake to be safe. To set a 
jewel pin, remove the hairspring and fill the 
hole where the jewel pin goes with cement 
drawn out into filaments about the size of a 
large bristle. Some little skill is required to 
do this expeditiously. The cement is made 
by mixing a little gum myrrh with the best 
shellac, and melting both together at the 
lowest temperature in which they will thor¬ 
oughly unite. While the mass is warm, it is 
drawn out into threads of near the size of 
the hole in the roller. Take the balance 
(with the hairspring removed) in a pair of 
tweezers and move it back and forth through 
the blaze of your alcohol lamp, until hot 
enough to melt the cement when you touch 
the jewel pole with one of the filaments, and 
it will instantly be filled with cement; or a 
small piece of one of the cement threads can 
be broken off and inserted in the hole and 
melted. At any rate no great surplus of 
cement should be used, as it not only makes 
a smeary unworkmanlike job, but it is liable 







22 


TO HOOK IN THE MAINSPRING. 


to get into the passing hollow and interfere 
with the guard-pin. 

After the hole is filled, and while the roller 
is hot, insert the jewel pin with an extra pair 
of tweezers, being sure to keep the flat side of 
the jewel pin to the front and keeping the 
jewel pin upright. It need not perhaps be 
said, do not heat your balance as to change 
its color or burn the cement. In setting 
pallet stones, the same kind of cement is 
used. Some persons use shellac dissolved in 
alcohol; this cannot be recommended, as it 
leaves the cement or shellac porous from the 
bubbles formed by the alcohol when being 
driven off by heat. 

In order to get at the proper angle and 
position of a pallet stone, the fork should be 
put in the watch and the banking screws 
turned so that the guard pin will just touch 
the roller; the balance should now be put in 
without the balance spring, and revolved to 
see if it enters the fork properly, bending 
the guard pin, if necessary, until this result 
is obtained. With the fork and roller action 
in this condition, the tooth should just reach 
the locking face of the pallet engaged. If 
we now remove the pallets and insert our 
pallet stone to be set, placing it as near in 
the correct position as we can judge, trying 
it with the scape wheel to see if it is too 
close outside or inside. Next place it in the 
watch and see if a tooth resting against it 
(the new jewel) just rests on the locking face. 
Now open the bankings until the tooth will 
escape, and it should be all right if the direc¬ 
tions have been complied with. If, on the 
other hand, the pallet is in too far, the pallet 
should be removed and heated and the stone 
pushed back, trying it again with the scape 
wheel to see if the teeth pass readily between 
the pallets inside and outside. 

To make the instructions still more ex¬ 
plicit, we will recapitulate. If the guard pin 
rests against the roller and the other parts 
of the escapement are all right, the following 
conditions will exist: 

The jewel pin will enter the fork freely, 
and the fork will pass over against the op¬ 
posite banking pin, where it will rest, but as 
both banking pins are too close, the tooth 
which just touched on the locking face can¬ 
not escape, for the just mentioned reason, and 
they hold the guard pin against the roller. 
But remember the guard pin is in just the 
right place when, if pressed against the roller, 
it will barely permit the jewel pin to enter 
the fork, and the pallet is in just the right 


position (as far as locking is concerned) if 
the guard pin resting against the roller and 
the tooth engaging the pallet, is as near leav¬ 
ing the locking face of the pallet as it can, 
and not do so. But if on opening the bank¬ 
ings so as to remove the guard pin free of the 
roller, the pallets will escape, and only a 
good, fine secure lock is obtained, we may 
feel sure that the pallet stone is properly set. 

The Swiss club-tooth escapement is not so 
easily managed, as they are frequently, espe¬ 
cially in the cheaper grades of movements, 
faulty, both in the pallets and in the teeth. 


TO HOOK IN THE MAINSPRING. 

ANY springs are broken owing to the 
hook in the barrel arbor being too long ; 
therefore, this is an important item to be ex¬ 
amined by the operator, if he knows that 
springs in a certain watch are liable to fre¬ 
quent breakage. Some of the closely made 
English watches in which a small barrel is 
used, frequently get their springs broken be¬ 
cause the arbor hook stands out too promi¬ 
nent. This hook should never be left longer 
than the thickness of a coil of the spring ; this 
is quite sufficient to hold firmly, provided 
the hole in the spring is properly chamfered. 
The hole made in this end of the spring 
should be sufficiently large to allow the arbor 
hook plenty of room so that it will not raise 
or lower the center of the spring, if the hook 
should be a little out of the center. In 
some of the flat Geneva watches, for which 
a very thin spring is used, we have to be 
very careful in this particular ; for, with such 
a thin—or low—spring there is not the room 
to make the hole sufficiently large for the 
hook, without making it a little weaker; or, 
if we are not careful, we are very liable to 
get the spring slightly ruptured in this part. 
Now, rather than run a risk of this kind, we 
had better stone off a part of the sides of 
the hook. Or, if the hook should be a little 
out of the center of the arbor, we can then 
stone off one side only, in order to bring the 
hole central. 

When these little items are attended to, 
we are not very likely to have the center of 
the spring chafing on the cover or bottom 
of the barrel, unless the spring has not been 
properly finished, which is frequently the 
case with some of the cheap springs. Some 
of them have a rough burr on the edge, 
which will often cause considerable trouble; 
for in this instance, when the spring is nearly 




TO MAKE A TRUE STAFF IN AN AMERICAN LATHE. 


2 3 


down and at its weakest point, it is then de¬ 
prived of part of its strength by this chafing. 
Now, if the outside of the spring chafes, 
owing to its getting in any way bulged by 
riveting the hook on, this chafing is not so 
liable to affect the watch to such an extent, 
for, when this part of the spring is in action, 
there are more coils at work than when the 
spring is nearly exhausted ; hence, its strength 
is better able to overcome the chafing. We 
see from this that the inner end of the spring 
should always be carefully examined ; for we 
had better fit in a spring a size too low than 
allow any chafing whatever. 


TOO MUCH DROP IN LEVER 
ESCAPEMENT. 

N correcting a lever escapement which 
has too much drop, we must put in new 
pallet stones; although generally in club- 
tooth escapements, if one pallet is corrected 
it will answer—but don’t understand that 
this will do if both are equally faulty, be¬ 
cause this is not what is meant. What is 
meant is that generally one pallet is very 
bad and the other will answer after the first 
is corrected. For if we sought to remedy 
all the faults of many of our cheap watches, 
the melting pot would be the first thing to 
use. 

In testing a watch for a thin pallet which 
can be considered as causing too much drop 
(although the fault rpay be in the tooth, if a 
club tooth, but as it can be remedied by 
correcting the pallet, we call it all the fault 
of the pallet), we proceed as follows: We 
put a slight friction under the balance, and 
revolve it so as to unlock the escapement, 
and observe whether the tooth falls too far 
after being released from the pallet, and also 
notice from which pallet the most drop takes 
place, so as to be able to select which one 
is most in need of correction. Here, again, 
we must in a great measure depend on the 
judgment; but we know that the drop should 
not be more than i}4°, and here, again, the 
eye has a comparative standard, that is, the 
drop should not be much more than one- 
fourth of the angular motion of the tooth 
when acting on the impulse face of the pallet, 
or about one-fifth of the angular motion 
(12 0 ) from locking face to locking face. 
The way to correct the thin pallet is to put 
in a new pallet stone which will hold the 
scape wheel longer, and, of course, convey 
more train power to the balance. 


TO SET JEWELS. 

UPPOSE we have a watch that needs a 
new jewel in the bottom plate, and we 
have no jewel that will just fit the old seat 
and pivot too, or the bezel may be no good ; 
we must select a jewel that will fit the pivot 
and is a trifle longer than the old seat, and 
proceed to cut a new seat and bezel for it. 
Having the face plate or universal head in 
place, put your plate up, and push the pump 
center into the hole where you wish to set 
the jewel. Now adjust the clamps to your 
plate, but before screwing them up, look in 
at the peep hole behind and see if the pump 
center is exactly in the hole. Now put on 
your top plate as though you were putting 
the watch together. The jewel or pivot 
hole in the top plate is supposed to be in 
the right place, so we will test the thing to 
see whether our work is centered. Take a 
full-length pegwood stick, and sharpen it to 
a nice point, and insert it into the jewel or 
pivot hole, and let it rest on the T-rest, which 
must be slipped within about one inch of the 
plate. Then, as you run the lathe slowly, 
watch the end of the pegwood, and if it 
does not stand still, but moves up and down, 
the plate is not truly centered, and you must 
center it by that stick, or else the wheel that 
is put into that place will not stand upright. 
To finish centering this, slacken the clamp 
a little, and with the hammer in hand, run 
your lathe slowly, and when the end of the 
pegwood is down, stop the lathe and tap 
the top edge of the plate, and start the lathe 
again, noting what effect your tapping had. 
It takes practice to center this way, but it 
is “dead sure.” After you have centered, 
tighten the clamps, and take off the plate, 
and proceed to set your jewel. 


TO MAKE A TRUE STAFF IN AN 
AMERICAN LATHE. 

AY we have a spring tempered piece of 
wire, No. 44, Stubb’s gauge, which will fit 
a No. 22 chuck. I turn my staffs hard, while 
many men blank the staff out, and then take 
it out of the lathe and temper it, put it back 
and finish. Tempered steel turns much 
smoother than soft steel, although it is harder 
on gravers. I next place my piece of wire 
in the chuck, sticking it out far enough to 
turn the whole staff, and I finish the upper 
end, balance seat, collet seat, and pivot, then 
turn the hub perfectly true with the pivot 
and grind it with oil-stone dust; at the same 






-4 


TO PUT IN A NEW SCAPE WHEEL. 


time I grind the pivot, making it smoother 
than I have the hub, the right length or 
about it, and proceed to turn as much of the 
lower part or roller seat as I can before cut¬ 
ting it off. All that I turn before cutting 
off the staff is aimed to be perfectly in line 
with the pivot, and the hub is left perfectly 
straight—not beveled. 

When I next cut off the staff, I grasp it 
by the hub, and after I get it the right 
length, I true it up with the graver, finding 
it an easy matter to true it up, as the hub is 
smoother and the lower part of the staff was 
turned in line with the pivot. When I get 
the lower part to run true, I know that my 
pivots will be in line, for they were turned 
in line before the staff was cut off. After 
finishing and polishing the pivot, I take the 
staff out, get another chuck that will fit the 
collet seat, and proceed to turn the slope on 
the hub, and my staff is finished. 


CENTERING A BALANCE STAFF OR 
PIVOT. 

VERY often use a split chuck for a third 
or fourth wheel pivot, but I generally pre¬ 
fer a brass taper cement chuck for a balance 
staff or pivot. My method is as follows: 
After securing the brass taper in the chuck, 
I turn off the face perfectly smooth, to 
avoid being deceived in the center, then 
with a fine pointed graver find the center, 
which I cut about as deep as the length of 
the pivot, using a strong glass. To test its 
accuracy, I take a long pin tongue, soften 
it, and set the pointed end in the female 
center just cut—holding the other end 
against the thumb of my right hand; then 
by setting the rest close to the chuck, and 
holding a thin slip of pegwood under the 
pointed end of the pin, as it rests in the 
center, and revolving the lathe, the slightest 
error will be detected by the “wink ” of the 
pin. After being assured of the accuracy 
of the center, I next apply the cement. By- 
the-way, about one-sixteenth of one inch 
from the end of the taper, I have soldered a 
small piece of thin brass like a washer, which 
holds the cement better and requires less 
heat to soften it. The pivot of the staff is 
then set in the center, and the cement heated 
until it softens and flows around the staff, 
and then allowed to cool until it will hold 
the balance without dropping out. Set the 
lathe in motion, and turn the other end of 
the staff by holding a piece of pegwood at 


rest under the old stump of the broken pivot 
or the next shoulder, the remaining part of 
the operation of drilling, setting plug, and 
turning, has often been described, and which 
I could not improve upon, except by the 
cautionary suggestion that the plug be fitted 
so that it will drive tight with the end touch¬ 
ing the bottom of the hole drilled. 

A plug, when fitted, is of course a little 
tapering, and as the hole is the same size 
when it is driven in, it really binds only at 
the outside, which is the largest part; and 
for this reason, a pivot will sometimes work 
loose when it is being turned off, particularly 
if the hole is large, with little depth. This 
may sometimes be remedied by striking the 
small end of the plug lightly with the ham¬ 
mer, raising a slight burr on the end, and 
then driving it in as before. 


TO PUT IN A NEW SCAPE WHEEL. 

L ET us suppose the case that a new pinion 
was put in the scape wheel, and that 
the workman did not succeed in getting his 
pinion in true (a very usual occurrence), he 
now tops off the teeth,—very likely rounding 
up the points of the teeth to avoid “ friction,” 
until he gets his scape wheel too small. If 
our botch stopped here, the remedy would 
be simple enough; all there is to be done is 
to put in a new scape wheel of the correct 
style. A few words in regard to scape 
wheels, and we will go on with our problem. 

Workmen who live at some distance from 
large stocks of scape wheels should keep a 
good supply of the commoner size on hand, 
letting extreme size (either large or small) be 
in the minority. If you have one of the 
correct size, all right, put it in; if not, select 
one the nearest you have larger. Set the 
wheel on the pinion and true it up. Next 
take your depthing tool, and set the points 
so they correspond to the holes in the plate. 
Some little judgment is required to set a 
depthing tool to exactly represent the dis¬ 
tance between the two holes; the best way 
is to take the inside of the top plate (if an 
English lever), and set the points as nearly 
correct as the judgment dictates will be 
right; next, set one of the points in one hole 
and with the other sweep a short circle cross¬ 
ing the other hole; then with a double eye¬ 
glass determine if the line crosses exactly 
the center of the hole; if not, set the depth¬ 
ing tool until it does. 

Put in your scape wheel and pallets, and 




TO PREVENT A WATCH FROM OVER-BANKING. 


2 5 


try the depth—first by turning your scape 
wheel backward ; if the wheel is entirely too 
large, it will not turn. Judgment must of 
course have been exercised in not selecting 
a scape wheel disproportionally large; still, 
if the instructions here given are observed, 
a wheel seemingly much too large can be 
used. The reader must not imagine that 
the writer considers this course as the best , 
because he does nothing of the kind; he 
only gives this as a method by which a fair 
result can be obtained by persons so situated 
as to be limited in their resources. 

If the scape wheel^vill not turn backward, 
and indicates that the wffieel is too large, 
remove the lever from the depthing tool 
(but be careful not to change the depth), 
and insert a slip of Arkansas stone so that 
it will be held steady, and with the fingers 
revolve the wheel so as to grind off the ends 
of the teeth. This should be repeated until 
the wheel turns freely backward. Next 
comes the testing for' the lock, which is a 
delicate manipulation not difficult to do, but 
somewhat difficult to describe. 

Let us suppose we turn the scape wheel 
backward, so that the back of the tooth 
acting against the egress pallet, which we 
will call B, will cause the ingress pallet, 
which we will call A , to advance the impulse 
face of (ingress) pallet A , inside of a part 
of circle or arc corresponding to the ends of 
the scape teeth. The scape wheel does not 
want to be turned back until the tooth 
against pallet B passes the angle of B , but 
only enough so that when the scape wheel 
is turned forward a tooth will engage the 
impulse face of A somewhat near the mid¬ 
dle, if now the scape wheel is moved for¬ 
ward until the latter tooth leaves or drops 
from the pallet A. If everything • is as it 
should be, the latter tooth will fall safely on 
the locking face of the pallet B and draw it 
inward. Both pallets can be tested by this 
system, only reversing the order, letting the 
back of the latter tooth strike A so as to let 
the tooth strike the impulse face of B, and 
bring the locking face of A into action in 
the same manner as we did at B. This 
process can be repeated until every tooth is 
tested as to lock and drop. After the teeth 
are stoned off to the correct length, they can 
be dressed up to a point by a slip of Arkan¬ 
sas stone; but only stone the back of the 
tooth, leaving the front intact. Skill and 
judgment must of course be used to preserve 
the correct form of the tooth. 


TO PREVENT A WATCH FROM 
OVER-BANKING. 

HE banking pins have nothing whatever 
to do with over-banking. They only regu¬ 
late the run , or in other words the distance 
the pallet jewels travel in toward the scape 
wheel. If the banking pins are too far 
apart, the scape teeth reach too far up the 
locking planes of the pallet jewels, and the 
balance, having therefore to carry the fork 
so great a distance before the scape teeth 
act on the impulse planes, meets with so 
much resistance that the motion is very 
much increased thereby, and often causes 
the watch to stop altogether. 

In a correct escapement, the fork should 
bank against the pins, immediately the scape 
tooth has dropped from one jewel to the 
other. If the watch over-banks, the fork is 
either too short or the roller is too small; in 
most cases the trouble lies with the fork 
unless the roller has been tampered with. 
The effective length of the fork should be 
such that, when the power is on the watch, 
if the guard point of the fork is pressed 
against the roller, it will, on being released, 
return to the bankings. In no case should 
the fork be left so short that it can be wedged 
against the roller, as the watch would be 
liable to stop at any time, and if it received 
a jar, would in all probability start off again 
and so cause a great deal of trouble in lo¬ 
cating the stoppage, in annoyance to cus¬ 
tomers. 

The fork in Swiss watches may be length¬ 
ened in several ways. Draw the temper, if 
necessary, and stretch it with the pane end 
of the hammer, on the part between the 
notch and the center. If done this way, 
care must be taken to see that it is not bent 
by the stretching, and, if so, straighten it 
before putting into the watch, or else it 
would have too much run on one side, and 
not escape on the other. 

Another way is to file back the old guard 
point or edge, drill a hole and fit a new one 
having a pivot on the bottom to go through 
the hole. Rivet it in place, if possible; if 
not, solder it carefully. It can then be 
shortened to the correct length, and the fork 
repolished. 

If the watch is an English one, the brass 
guard pin on the end of the fork will have 
to be bent forward a little, and if that won’t 
rectify it a new fork must be fitted; but it is 
necessary to examine everything in connec¬ 
tion first to make sure that the trouble is in 



26 


THE “SETTING” OF SCAPE WHEELS. 


the fork, as the balance jewels might be 
broken or too large in the holes, and thus 
allow the roller to drop away from the fork 
sufficiently to cause over-banking, or the 
balance staff might be badly out of true, 
which would cause the roller to be out in 
the round, and that would cause it. In any 
case examine the escapement thoroughly, 
and locate the defect before making any 
alterations. 


THE “SETTING” OF SCAPE 
WHEELS. 

T is well known that a large scape wheel 
will set easier than a small one, since more 
power is required to propel a large wheel 
than a small one; and in case of an anchor 
movement, the pallets are set farther from 
the center of the wheel; mechanics teach 
that the farther any part is from a given 
center the more force it will require to move 
a given weight. We may express it in differ¬ 
ent words and say that a less pressure will 
stop a wheel, when it is large, simply because 
the contact is further from the center. This 
can easily be demonstrated by placing one’s 
finger against any wheel in a train of a 
clock, or at the tip of the scape wheel teeth, 
when it will be found that the least touch 
will cause a stoppage. Should we try to 
hold the pinion, however, we will find that 
it requires much more pressure. It will, 
perhaps, be. useful to give the relative pro¬ 
portions of this pressure in proportion to the 
size of wheels and pinions. It will assist in 
understanding the subject. Let us suppose 
that we have a wheel three inches in diame¬ 
ter, and on the same axis we attach another 
wheel one inch in diameter, place a piece 
of cord round the largest diameter and hang 
a i-pound weight on the cord; now wind 
another cord the contrary way on the small 
diameter, and it will be found that it requires 
a 3-pound weight to hold the other in equi¬ 
librium ; hence we see that if one wheel is 
three times larger than another, it will of 
necessity require three times more pressure 
before it can acquire its proper propelling 
force. Of course, we are aware that the 
scape wheels of watches do not vary as 
much as this, but we simply make use of 
this illustration to be more readily under¬ 
stood. 

Now, when we consider these proportions 
from the barrel wheel to escape wheel, we 
can easily understand what a vast difference 


a slight variation in the size of the scape 
wheel will make in its propelling force, and 
this is the reason why we frequently see such 
strong mainsprings used in some of the in¬ 
ferior grade watches. If the makers were to 
study well the relative proportions of wheels 
and pinions, it is certain that they would not 
employ such strong springs. 

After this short digression let us return to 
the subject. We must remember that a 
wheel, if too small, is also very detrimental, 
since, as it were, it seems too quick for the 
other parts of the escapement, and being so 
much under the control the other wheels, 
it is rather obstinate, and not so willing to 
make its retrograde motion at the proper 
time. Of course, when the balance revolves 
so as to unlock the pallet, the wheel is forced 
to make this backward motion, but since the 
pressure is much stronger in a small wheel, 
when it is extra small, it must lock very 
hard, and it is therefore very liable to make 
a bad action, the same as would be produced 
by a deep depthing. I think I will be un¬ 
derstood what I mean by saying that the 
wheel is too quick, for, with such a pressure 
it drops into the pallet jewel sooner than it 
would otherwise, and it is therefore really in 
advance of the lever and balance. Under 
these circumstances it is very liable to cut 
the pallet jewels or get its teeth exceedingly 
worn. A short time ago I had an escape¬ 
ment of this description under repairs; it 
had a very broad escape wheel, and the 
pallet jewels were very round, so that only 
a small portion of it came in contact with 
the wheel, which was perfectly flat, so that 
the jewels caught each tooth exactly in the 
center. The watch had only been going 
about eighteen months, but the pallets had 
“ pitted the wheel, owing to the excessive 
force, that all the front parts of the teeth 
were quite worn out of position. 

This will also occasionally happen when 
a particle of oil-stone dust or any similar 
substance gets on the wheel teeth or pal¬ 
lets. 

When the wheel has sufficient metal, this 
can be remedied by carefully filing the front 
part of the teeth until the “ pits ” are taken 
out; but it requires care, as the file must be 
held exactly in the same position with the 
angle of the teeth. If this is not observed, 
the wheel will most probably be ruined, 
since no good action can be expected of a 
watch when the angle of its scape wheel 
teeth has been disarranged. 



THE MEANING “ PITCH CIRCLE.” 


2 7 


THE COMPENSATED BALANCE. 

COMPENSATED balance is one which, 
when expanded by heat, contracts in 
some direction to neutralize the effect of that 
change, and vice versd. The usual method of 
securing that result is by forming the balance 
rim of two metals, one of which is more af¬ 
fected by heat and cold than the other, as of 
steel and brass, with the brass on the outside. 
When the steel center bar expands and car¬ 
ries the entire rim outward, the brass portion 
expands more than the steel, and therefore 
curves the rim and carries the free end of 
the section, or “segment,” nearer to the 
center than the other end, which is attached 
to the center bar. By attaching a weight to 
the free end of the rim, the effect of this 
movement is increased, as the center of 
weight of the rim, as a whole, determines the 
virtual working diameter of the balance, and 
this diameter is more rapidly varied as the 
weight thus moved inward and outward be¬ 
comes greater, or nearer the free end of the 
segment of the rim. If the weight is moved 
too far, the vertical diameter of the balance 
is changed more by that motion than by the 
heat and cold, the effect of the latter is more 
than neutralized, and an error of the opposite 
kind is produced. In this case, the balance 
is said to be over-compensated, and the rem¬ 
edy is to move the weight (or screws) back 
from the free end of the rim, till its move¬ 
ments exactly neutralize the errors of time 
caused by the expansion of the balance by 
heat, or its contraction by cold. When this 
is done, the balance is correctly compensated, 
and the movement is adjusted for heat and 
cold. 

It is obvious that a balance may be cor¬ 
rectly made, but not afterwards compensated. 
It would then be a compensation or expan¬ 
sion balance, but not a compensated or ad¬ 
justed one. A balance, the rim of which is 
not cut through entirely, is certainly not ad¬ 
justed, and cannot be until it is cut. So, 
also, a cut balance the rim of which is not 
so made as to be susceptible of adjustment, 
may be a nuisance, causing the watch to run 
perfectly “ wild.” A well-made compensa¬ 
tion balance, the rim of which is not cut, is 
no better than a plain gold balance, because 
its rim, though capable of compensating, has 
no chance to do so, its rim being fastened at 
all points. Consequently it expands and 
contracts under the influence of changed 
temperatures just as any other solid balance 
would do, whether made of gold or any 


other material. The screws may be orna¬ 
mental, but they have no function as com¬ 
pensation weights, and such a balance is 
merely a “screw balance.” 

From the above will be seen that natural 
causes contend against plain gold, steel, 
brass, or any other metallic balances keeping 
as good time as a good compensated balance, 
or, indeed, are at all susceptible of keeping 
anything like correct time. A watch with a 
plain gold balance may be adjusted to posi¬ 
tion, and even this is very rarely done, ex¬ 
cept in movements with adjusted balances. 
The most usual adjustment is that of the 
balance to temperatures, and this, as has 
been shown, cannot be done with a balance 
of any single metal. The adjustment to 
positions relates to the balance pivots and 
their jewels, to secure equal vibration in all 
positions. The adjustment for isochronism 
relates principally to the hairspring. 


RELATION OF MAINSPRING TO 
BARREL. 

F we wish to have a mainspring theo¬ 
retically adjusted, there is no better method 
than simply to allow one third empty space, 
one third for the barrel arbor, and the re¬ 
mainder for the spring. When a spring is at 
rest on the barrel, it should occupy one-sixth 
of the barrel’s inside diameter at either side 
of the arbor. If we divide a barrel into 
sixty equal parts, we should always see that 
the barrel arbor is just twenty of these parts. 
It is a great mistake to have a barrel arbor 
too small, for when such is the case, it is al¬ 
most sure to break the mainspring, if the 
center is at all stubborn; as is very often 
the case with the cheap class of mainsprings 
in market. _ 

THE MEANING “PITCH CIRCLE.” 

N every depth the curved portions, both of 
the leaves and the teeth, which are known 
as the points or curves, always project be¬ 
yond the pitch circles. In discussing any 
depth, we start with the supposition that if 
these two circles were to roll one on the 
other without friction, the depth would be 
perfect or primitive. Hence, they are known 
in scientific books as primitive, geometrical, 
or pitch circles, and their diameters and radii 
are also called geometrical or primitive. 
Thus in every wheel or pinion it is important 
to remember that the total diameter is the 
primitive diameter, plus twice the height of 





28 


CORRECT LENGTH OF LEVER, ETC. 


the point, or curve portion of tooth and leaf. 
Thus in a depth when it is said that the pinion 
radius is 1.25 inches, the geometrical radius 
is meant, which reaches from the center of 
the pinion to the part of the leaf where the 
curve starts. The geometrical diameter of 
the pinion is the total diameter less the thick¬ 
ness of a leaf measured at the pitch circle. 
The study of depthing is very interesting, 
and as it is impossible to design a correct 
depthing without thoroughly understanding 
the theory and necessary calculation in¬ 
volved, watchmakers, especially the younger, 
should make themselves masters of it. 


TO USE THE MAINSPRING WINDER. 

LTHOUGH a mainspring is often put in 
with the fingers, even by good workmen, 
still this way has its objections. When using 
the winder, the spring is to be hooked upon 
the arbor of the winder, then wound thereon, 
while holding the coil flat by the thumb on 
one side, and the second finger on the other 
side, with the first finger pressing on the out¬ 
side of the spring to retain the winding. 
When fully wound, or very nearly so, the 
barrel is carefully placed over the spring, 
which is then allowed to slip around within 
the barrel until it becomes properly hooked, 
after which the barrel itself is allowed to 
slowly turn till it is entirely free, and the 
spring can be easily removed from the arbor. 

The winder should of course not be used 
when the winding arbor is in the barrel, as 
in watches having a solid ratchet screwed to 
the bridge, and holding the barrel or barrel 
head fast on the bridge—otherwise the cen¬ 
ter of the spring would doubtless be badly 
bent. It is also necessary to use in the 
winder an arbor of the same diameter as the 
collet of the winding arbor, as a larger one 
would open the center of the spring, and a 
smaller one is very likely to cause the spring 
to snap off near the center. Caution must 
also be used to avoid dirtying the spring and 
barrel with the fingers, especially if the hands 
sweat much. That is done by holding the 
parts with a piece of clean tissue paper be¬ 
tween them and the skin. It hardly needs to 
be said that the winder can work in either 
direction by moving the spring pressing on 
the ratchet pawl—and that the spring must 
not be allowed to slip from the fingers dur¬ 
ing the winding, else an inextricable snarl 
may result, damaging or breaking the spring. 
Many workmen do not use the winder at all, 


but hold the barrel in tissue paper, hook the 
outer end of the spring properly, then coil it 
in from the outside, pushing in a half-coil 
alternately on each side, with the thumbs. 
For thin and narrow springs this is as well 
as the other way, but thick and wide springs 
are less liable to be bent when inserted with 
the winder. _ 

TO CLEANSE A NICKEL MOVE¬ 
MENT. 

ATCHMAKERS sometimes think that 
nickel movements are more difficult to 
clean than gilt movements. This is not so, 
however, and the former are to be cleaned by 
the same process as the latter. It is also gen¬ 
erally supposed that nickel is but little liable 
to tarnish. This is a great mistake, as it is 
far more liable to be affected by exposure 
to moisture, handling, etc., than gilding. In 
fact, it is almost as bad in this respect as 
iron, to which it is very similar in its chem¬ 
ical reactions. So far as is publicly known, 
the best agents for cleaning nickel are me¬ 
chanical in their nature—that is to say, it is 
best done by the use of polishing powders. 
These should not be used dry, however, as 
the nickel would all be worn off before a 
polish is produced ; nor will moisture make 
the action any better. Either soap and hot 
water, or, what is better, a very little oil on 
a piece of buff leather, mixed with the pol¬ 
ishing powder, should be used, finishing with 
the soap and water, or the alcohol bath. A 
mere trace of oil on the tip of the finger, 
gently rubbed over the parts, will readily 
loosen and remove the dirt and tarnish, after 
which the oil can be removed as usual. 

As far as patent or secret unguents and 
cleansing agents are concerned, they may, 
on the whole, be looked on with suspicion, 
and to the watchmakers at large there is 
really nothing more accessible or quick-act¬ 
ing than soap and water, or oily substances 
and polishing powders, with gentle rubbing. 

A good polishing powder for polishing up 
nickel is finely powdered and sifted unslacked 
lime, used on a buff wheel with a little oil. 
It should be kept in tightly-corked bottles 
or jars to exclude the air, and only a little 
of it taken out and powdered, as wanted. 


CORRECT LENGTH OF LEVER, ETC. 

T is quite frequently necessary to deter¬ 
mine the correct length of the lever, size of 
table roller, size of the pallets, and depth of 







TO OBSERVE BALANCE VIBRATION. 


29 


the escapement of lever watches. A lever, 
from the guard pin to the pallet staff, should 
correspond in length with twice the diameter 
of the ruby-pin table, and if such a table is 
accidentally lost, its correct size may be 
known by measuring half the lever between 
the points above named. For correct size 
of pallet, the clear spot between the pal¬ 
lets should correspond with the outside 
measure on the points of three teeth of the 
scape wheel. The only rule that can be 
given without the use of diagrams, for cor¬ 
rect depth of the escapement, is to set it as 
close as it will bear, and still free itself per¬ 
fectly, when in motion. This may be done 
by first placing the escapement into your 
depthing tool, and then setting it to the cor¬ 
rect depth. Then by measuring the distance 
between the pivots of the lever staff and 
scape wheel, as now set, and the correspond¬ 
ing pivot holes in the watch, you determine 
correctly how much the depth of the escape¬ 
ment requires to be altered. 


OVER-ACTIVE COMPENSATION. 

HOULD a balance be over-actively com¬ 
pensated, the screws must be set farther 
back toward the balance arms. Supposing, 
however, that it is not possible to remove the 
screws, then their weight must be lessened, 
in order to reduce the compensation. It is 
necessary in this case to regulate the move¬ 
ment screw, since it will now advance in 
mean temperature. This can be effected 
either by means of the balance spring or by 
an increase of weight of the two screws op¬ 
posite the balance arms. When any correc¬ 
tion whatever is made to the screws, carefully 
re-establish the equipoise of the balance. 


TO MAKE A BURNISHER. 

ROCEED the same way as in making 
pivot files, with the exception that you are 
to use fine flour of emery on a slip of oiled 
brass or copper, instead of the emery paper. 
Burnishers which have become smooth may 
be improved vastly with the flour of emery, 
as above, without drawing the temper. To 
prepare one for polishing, melt a little bees¬ 
wax on the face of the burnisher. Its effect 
then on brass or other fine metals will be 
equal to the best buff. A small burnisher 
prepared in this way is the very thing with 
which to polish up watch wheels. Rest them 
on a piece of pith, while polishing. 


TO POLISH STEEL. 

ARE crocus of oxide of tin and graduate 
it in the same way as in preparing diamond 
dust, and apply it to the steel by means of a 
piece of soft iron or bell metal, made of 
proper form, and apply it with flour of em¬ 
ery, the same as for pivot burnishers. To 
iron or soft steel, a better finish may be given 
by burnishing than can be imparted by the 
use of polishing powders of any kind what¬ 
ever. The German mode of polishing steel 
is performed by the use of crocus on a buff 
wheel. Nothing can exceed the surpassing 
beauty imparted to steel or even cast-iron 
by this process. _ 

POLISHING BROACHES. 

OLISHING broaches are usually made 
of ivory, and used with diamond dust, 
loose, instead of having been driven in. Oil 
the broach slightly, dip it into the finest dia¬ 
mond dust, and work it into the jewel the 
same as you would the brass broach. Unfort¬ 
unately, too many watchmakers do not at¬ 
tach sufficient importance to the polishing 
broach. The sluggish motion of watches 
nowadays is more often attributable to rough 
jewels than to any other cause. 


OILING THE PALLETS OF DETACHED 
LEVERS. 

HE question is often asked whether the 
lever pallets should be oiled. This de¬ 
pends somewhat on circumstances. Very fine 
movements are supposed to be so highly 
finished as not to need any oil here, which 
is held to be detrimental to fine time-keep¬ 
ing ; but the more usual practice, especially 
with ordinary watches, is to oil them. They 
should not be smeared with oil, so as to run 
up on the under side of the lever fork, or on 
the top of the escape wheel, as it will gather 
dirt and lead to sticking and clogging the 
wheel, while passing near or under the fork. 
Only the pallet stones should be oiled, and 
sparingly. _ 

TO OBSERVE BALANCE VIBRATION. 

O observe the extent of vibration of a 
balance, run your eye around the rim, 
and you will see some point, as a screw in the 
rim, a mark on it, or the end of one of the 
balance arms, which can be distinctly ob¬ 
served when the balance stops and begins to 
turn the other way. Notice some stationary 
part that is exactly opposite, or under that 













30 


SPEED OF DIFFERENT TIMEPIECES. 


screw at the turning point of the vibration. 
Now, whenever that screw fails to reach that 
point or goes beyond it, you will see at once, 
and see how much it falls short or goes be¬ 
yond it. By noticing how far the screw 
reaches in both directions, you have the ex¬ 
tent of the vibration between these two 
points. If the screw reaches the same point 
from each direction, the vibration is “ one 
turn.” If it goes one-eighth of a turn fur¬ 
ther in each direction, that is one and one- 
fourth turns; and if it falls short one-eighth 
of a turn both ways, the vibration is three- 
quarters of one turn. A little practice will 
enable the watchmaker to notice the extent 
and variations, and to estimate the proportion 
of a turn. 


TO USE THE DEPTHING TOOL. 

AKE your depthing tool and set the points 
so that they correspond to the holes in 
the plate. Some little judgment is required to 
set a depthing tool to exactly represent the 
distance between the two holes; the best 
way is to take the inside of the top plate (of 
an English lever) and set the points as nearly 
correct as the judgment dictates will be right; 
next, set one of the points in one hole, and 
with the other sweep a short circle crossing 
the other hole ; then with a double eyeglass 
determine if the line crosses exactly the cen¬ 
ter of the hole; if not, set the tool until it 
does. 


THE SIZE OF THE CYLINDER PIVOT. 

O establish the size of the pivot with rela¬ 
tion to its hole is apparently an easy thing 
to do correctly, but to an inexperienced 
workman it is not so. The side-shake in 
cylinder-pivot holes should be greater than 
that for ordinary train holes; one-sixth is the 
amount prescribed by Saunier; the size of 
the pivot relatively to the cylinder about 
one-eighth the diameter of the body of the 
cylinder. It is very necessary that this 
amount of side-shake should be correctly 
recognized; if less than the amount stated, 
the watch, though performing well when the 
oil is fresh, fails to do so when it commences 
to thicken. The only accurate way of get¬ 
ting at the correct amount of shake is to 
make a pivot or two to a jewel hole by 
means of a micrometer; the eye will soon 
become capable of correctly estimating the 
amount necessary. If any doubt exists, a 
round broach can be used to size the pivot 


hole, and the micrometer will then decide 
the question. 


TO CUT SCREW THREADS. 

I T is quite a knack to make a nice screw, 
and beginners are generally apt to use too 
much force when cutting the thread. If the 
spindle has been turned too large for the 
hole in the screw-plate, there is danger of 
breaking the tool, which is very hard, and 
pieces will chip off; again, the piece to be 
tapped is apt to break and stop up the hole 
in the plate, thereby entailing the tedious job 
of drilling the piece out and cleaning the 
thread. It is better to begin with a hole 
much larger and working down gradually. 
It is natural that a certain amount of force 
must be employed, and a little practice will 
soon teach the beginner how much, to insure 
a full good thread. Now, put the screw 
back in the tool, and turn the head a little 
more than the required thickness, and cut 
the screw off by turning a groove above. 


THE BALANCE SPRING. 

HE study of the balance spring must ever 
be of the greatest importance to the 
watchmaker; because it is the principal agent 
with which he is able to control the rate of 
the watch. Debating the different kinds of 
springs, an authority says that the great ad¬ 
vantage of an over-coil spring is that it dis¬ 
tends in action on both sides, and the balance 
pivots are thereby relieved of the side press¬ 
ure given with the ordinary flat spring. The 
Breguet spring, in common with the helical 
and all other forms in which the outer coil 
returns toward the center, offers opportuni¬ 
ties of obtaining isochronism by slightly vary¬ 
ing the character of the curve described by 
the outer coil, and thereby altering its power 
of resistance. 


SPEED OF DIFFERENT TIMEPIECES. 

HE balance of a so-called 18,000 train vi¬ 
brates 300 per minute, 18,000 per hour, 
consequently 432,000 in 24 hours, 12,960,- 
000 in 30 days—so-called month, 157,680,- 
000 in 365 days. 

A seconds pendulum makes 3,600 oscilla¬ 
tions in one hour, 86,400 a day, 2,592,000 
in 30 days, 31,536,000 in 365 days. 

A marine chronometer, vibrating half- 
seconds, makes 14,400 vibrations per hour, 











WATCH DIALS. 


3 1 


345,600 per day, 10,368,000 in 30 days, 
126,144,000 in 365 days. 

Let us suppose a watch vibrating 18,000 
per hour were quietly laid down or hung up 
for about ten hours—whereby it would go 
correctly; but in the next succeeding four¬ 
teen hours it would be worn the general 
length of time, and each vibration of the 
balance were retarded only by 0.0001, it 
would be equal in fourteen hours to 25.2 
vibrations, or 5.04 seconds; by a regular 
use, therefore, in one week, 35.28 seconds, 
and in one month, 2.52, or nearly three min¬ 
utes. _ 

KNIFE SUSPENSION. 

F a very exact rate is expected from a 
knife suspension of the pendulum, it stands 
to reason that neither at the polished edge 
nor in the pan the least rust must be visible, 
and the only way to prevent it is by slightly 
oiling the parts. _ 

NEW METHOD FOR ANNEALING. 

N the oil bath, in which the annealing of 
the tempered utensils is to be performed 
lay a metallic ball of about the size of a 
pea, and consisting of an alloy of 2 parts lead 
and 1 part tin. This alloy melts at 232 0 C., 
and therefore indicates the correct time 
when the small tools are to be taken out of 
the bath. Alloys of 3 parts lead and 1 part 
tin, and 4 parts lead and r part tin, melt 
at 259° to 260° C., at which temperature 
the utensils become softer. 


TO MANIPULATE THE MAINSPRING. 

HEN I take a watch down that has run 
twelve months and more, I first examine 
the mainspring, by taking off the cap (head) 
of the barrel, carefully removing the arbor; 
then, holding the barrel between the thumb 
and fingers of the left hand, with a small, 
round-nose pliers I lift out the inner end of 
the spring, holding the thumb and fingers in 
such a manner as to allow the spring to un¬ 
coil itself out of the barrel in a gentle man¬ 
ner into the hand; and if sound and of the 
right strength, I proceed to clean it with a 
piece of domestic (Yankee) muslin—a piece 
of your old worn-out shirt, if you please, 
after a thorough washing, this being soft and 
free from starch and all foreign matter cal¬ 
culated to injure steel. Holding the cloth 
or rag in the left hand, the spring in my 
right, just as it comes out of the barrel, 


gently moving it back and forth, holding two 
or three of the coils between the thumb, 
first and second (middle) fingers, pressing 
the coil slightly over with the ball of the 
thumb (not nails), so as not to materially 
change the natural curvature of the spring in 
any way during the operation. In this way 
the entire spring can be cleaned, with the 
exception of a small portion of the inner* 
coil, which can be cleaned by using a cor¬ 
ner of the rag, applied with a piece of peg- 
wood, or by a slight brushing with a brush 
used for a like purpose. A first-class spring 
(and no watchmaker should use any other, if 
he values time and reputation) thus cleaned, 
with proper space in the barrel, and with the 
arbor free, of proper size, and a liberal ap¬ 
plication of good watch oil (but not flooded 
with it) turned up to its proper capacity, will 
give out its full force for one or two years 
at least, without breaking, rusting, or becom¬ 
ing gummy and foul. 

WATCH DIALS. 

HE dial of a watch, says M. Grossmann, 
though of a material rather inconvenient 
to handle, is not much open to improvements. 
The liability to injury of the enamel has led 
to many attempts to replace it by some more 
suitable material. But the principal consid¬ 
erations of a good dial, distinctness, has 
never been attained in such perfection as 
with the enameled. A perfectly white sur¬ 
face, with deep black figures on it, cannot 
be surpassed for this purpose. 

For these reasons, the enameled dial, in 
spite of its fragility and thickness, is and will 
be kept in use by all those who do not leave 
out of sight its principal purpose; but it 
cannot be denied that the invention of a 
metallic or other appropriate material, pos¬ 
sessed of the indispensable qualities, would 
indeed prove a great progress in practical 
horology. Here is ample room for useful 
inventions. There was a period when in 
England and elsewhere dials were preferred 
of a yellowish or greyish tint. These are, 
of course, not so fit for the purpose as those 
of pure white enamel. In the same way the 
slightly frosted surface of the English dials 
is thought a great improvement, as it is said 
to allow of looking at the watch in any di- - 
rection without being disturbed by the re¬ 
flection of the dial surface. This is a strange 
mistake, for if the dial of a watch does not 
reflect when held in an awkward direction. 








3 2 


TO CORRECT THE CENTER STAFF. 


the glass over it will certainly do so. Be¬ 
sides it is so very easy to look at a watch 
without any danger of annoying reflex. 

The fastening of the dial in its position is 
effected by pins or screws. It is not advis¬ 
able to fix the dial with unduly small screws 
and holes drilled through it, because the dial 
is greatly exposed to injury by the slightest 
sideward pressure when shutting the case, 
the holes being so very near the edge of the 
dial. This method of fastening dials was 
formerly preferred by the best French and 
Swiss makers, and many a fine dial has been 
spoiled by it. 

A dial fastened in this way requires some 
care of the repairer when putting it on. He 
ought to screw both the screws gently down, 
but afterward to release each of them by 
about one-quarter of a turn, so as to ease the 
dial in its position. 

Another way of fastening the dial is with 
pillars, or feet, and pins. It is quite effi¬ 
cient, and involves no danger; therefore it 
has been much in favor in English watches, 
and if the movement can be gotten at, there 
is nothing to be said against it. But in the 
movements of the present period, the greater 
part of which do not open with a joint, the 
fastening with pins would be rather trouble¬ 
some, because, for taking off the dial, it 
would be necessary to take the movement out 
of the case. 

In all movements cased in this way, the 
dial pillars ought to be held by key screws, 
which allow taking off the dial without re¬ 
moving the movement. 

A very good method of fastening the dial 
is to set it in a thin rim of silver or gold, 
and adjust this rim nicely on the outer edge 
of the pillar plate. Then, of course, the dial 
requires no feet, and all the difficulties re¬ 
sulting of collision of these feet with the 
parts under the dial of complicated watches 
are done away with. 

The hands, in order to be distinctly seen, 
ought to be of a dark color, and the gener¬ 
ally adopted blue steel is far preferable to 
gold for this purpose, and the figures and 
hands ought to be a little more substantial 
than the present taste prescribes for them. 
The most convenient shape for the purpose 
is the spade pattern ; the Breguet and fleurs- 
de-lis hands not being so easily distinguished. 

The circle of seconds ought to have every 
fifth degree visibly marked by a longer and 
stronger stroke, in order to facilitate the 
reading of seconds. 


Formerly, all the dials had flat seconds, 
but since about thirty years it has been quite 
common to have sunk seconds, even for in¬ 
ferior watches. There is some advantage in 
that, especially in flat watches, where it af¬ 
fords accommodation for the seconds hand, 
but at the same time it weakens the dial con¬ 
siderably. This may be the reason why 
some makers have the sunk part much 
smaller, and the seconds painted on the 
main dial, the lines extending inward to the 
edge of the sink; the seconds hand is then 
shorter, and moves in the sink. The dial 
ought never to be made larger than the pillar 
plate. _ 

TO CORRECT THE CENTER STAFF. 

HE repairer will often find, especially with 
stem-winding watches, that the center 
staff moves too easily. He will also find that 
this defect has been corrected by working 
burr on the staff by means of a graver or a 
sharp file; it is true that this remedy will, 
for a time, be quite efficacious, as it will, so 
to speak, enlarge the staff and produce a stiff 
motion. This is not of great duration, how¬ 
ever, since, by the moving backward and 
forward of the hands, the burr will gradually 
drop off, and finally become a good grinding 
material by combining with the oil, and in 
due time will aggravate the defect by wear¬ 
ing the center staff and the hole of the cen¬ 
ter pinion, and the motion of the hands 
becomes still looser. Should next the loos¬ 
ened burr leave the pinion and combine with 
the oil of the pivot, the consequence will be 
still graver than formerly, because the jewel 
holes and pivots of the center wheel will be 
interfered with to such an extent that the 
watch must become faulty in its rate. 

It is the purpose of these lines to acquaint 
my colleagues with another less known 
method, which is both shorter and accom¬ 
plishes the purpose much more securely than 
the above. Fasten the square of the center 
staff in the pin vise; if the staff has at some 
previous time been treated in the above de¬ 
scribed manner, go over it with the pivot file 
and remove all traces; then with a fine rat- 
tail file file in it a so-called lantern, in such 
a manner that it is about one-third of the 
length of the center pinion away from the 
square. Then lay the staff flat upon an un¬ 
derlay, and gently tap it with the hammer in 
such a manner that the upper part of the 
notch slightly inclines to one side. This 
notch, which will now exert a slightly springy 




LONG OR SHORT FORKS. 


33 


motion, will produce a greater tightness of 
the staff, and if the operator is careful not 
to file away more than from one-third to 
one-half of the staff the watch will not be 
exposed to the inconveniences frequently 
occasioned by too great a looseness of the 
motion work. 


LONG OR SHORT FORKS. 

Y long and short forks we mean to distin¬ 
guish those, the length of which contains 
the diameter or rather the semi-diameter of 
the table roller a greater or less number of 
times. Thus we call a short fork one which 
is 3 or 3^4 times the length of the semi¬ 
diameter of the table roller, and we would 
call a long fork one which is 5 or 6 times 
the length of the semi-diameter of the table 
roller. In both instances the table roller is 
to be measured from the staff hole center to 
the radial center of the jewel pin, and the 
fork from staff hole center to that point 
in slot where it comes in contact with jewel 
pin. Supposing the pallets acting with long 
and short forks having the same impulse 
angles, say 5 0 on each side, then the short 
fork, as stated above, would give from 30 0 
to 35 0 impulse to balance and the long fork 
would give from 50 0 to 6o° impulse to bal¬ 
ance. The first point which forces itself 
upon our observation is the disparity be¬ 
tween the unlocking and impulse angles of 
the two, as shown by the balance, /.<?., by the 
angular motion traversed, for we have to sup¬ 
pose that the unlocking angle, as between 
wheel and pallet, is about the same or as 
short as possible in both instances. Pre¬ 
suming this to be the case, the unlocking of 
the escapement by means of the long fork is 
easier, but of longer duration, while that by 
means of the short fork is harder, but of 
shorter duration. But as the most acute re¬ 
sistance in unlocking the escapement is felt 
at the beginning, the unlocking by means of 
the long fork would have an advantage over 
that by means of the short fork, where the 
stronger impact would make an unfavorable 
impression on the balance pivot or pivots, 
and affect position unfavorably and very un¬ 
evenly in watches with unequal motive 
power, or a going barrel during the twenty- 
four hours running. But if both escape¬ 
ments, with long and short forks, are propor¬ 
tioned in their other parts, as they should 
be, there is still a further advantage in favor 
of the long fork by the pallet-staff pivots 
having less pressure, and therefore less fric¬ 


tion on account of the larger escape wheel, 
making the unlocking easier on that account, 
and this is quite important. 

Another point in favor of the long fork 
is shown by the following argument: Most 
lever escapements can be brought to a stand¬ 
still on the unlocking faces of the pallets by 
an immoderate increase of the motive power, 
showing thereby that the unlocking resist¬ 
ance of the escapement is not in proportion 
to the impulse force, and the former is too 
great. But as the long fork lessens this re¬ 
sistance by making the unlocking easier and 
of longer duration, instead it shows a move 
in the right direction, which has a tendency 
to make the motion of the balance more 
uniform with a varying motive power (a go¬ 
ing barrel), and therefore more isochronous, 
regardless of any condition of the balance 
spring. 

Furthermore, as the long continued im¬ 
pulse on the balance by means of the long 
fork for 50, 60 or more degrees, has the 
effect to accelerate the motion of the balance 
more and more during the progress of the 
impulse, the retarding of the motion of the 
balance by the unlocking resistance of the 
escapement is more likely to be neutralized, 
and we are more likely to come near a per¬ 
fect isochronism by means of the hairspring 
in adjusted watches. Adjusters of watches 
will readily see this, as the unlocking of the 
escapement is their great bugbear. 

We will next discuss the advantages of 
the short fork, the advantages of the one be¬ 
ing the disadvantages of the other. 

It is a well-known fact that all watches 
having the lever escapement have a ten¬ 
dency to gradually go slow or lose on their 
rate on account of the oil on the escape¬ 
ment, and it is principally on this account 
that the chronometer escapement excels the 
lever escapement. This tendency is more 
pronounced the longer the escape wheel lin¬ 
gers on the pallet faces during the running 
of the watch. Therefore, watches with 
lively motions are desirable and will perform 
better or keep their rate better for a long 
time than those with short motion, and it is 
a standing rule that the contact between the 
balance and the escapement should be of as 
short a duration as possible to avoid the oil 
influence as much as possible. This is in 
favor of short forks or a short impulse angle 
and quick beat. But in order to derive the 
full benefit from them, it is indispensably 
necessary to have all the details of the es- 




34 


THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROPORTIONS OF A WATCH BALANCE. 


capement executed in the most perfect man¬ 
ner, as a deep locking, too much drop or 
carelessly fitted pivot holes (either any one 
or all of them) would neutralize any advan¬ 
tage which we might have a right to expect 
from a short impulse angle or a quick beat, 
and a short motion with a short fork is no 
better and not as good as a large motion 
with a long fork, where the extent of vibra¬ 
tion would more than equalize matters. It 
has always seemed to me to be a popular 
error to assert that a quick beat, or, say, an 
18,000 beat train, should go better on a 
railroad than 16,200 beat train, as the latter 
is more easily isochronized. Of course, a 
good deal always depends on the general 
construction, extent of vibration and weight 
of balance, or, as the French would say, “ le 
tout ensemble.” _ 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PROPOR¬ 
TIONS OF A WATCH BALANCE. 

A BOUT thirty-five years ago fusee watches 
. had the lead in this country. Adjust¬ 
ing watches to heat, cold and position was 
hardly known and not appreciated, because 
the public had not been educated. A 
Charles Frodsham watch was the ne plus 
ultra. The only watch not having a fusee 
and which began to assert itself about this 
time, was the watch made by Jules Jurgen- 
sen, of Locle, Suisse. Of all the Swiss 
watches I had seen before the advent of this 
one or which I have seen since, none would 
hold its rate for years as well as this one, 
though during the twenty-four hours’ run¬ 
ning it did not equal the fusee watch for 
regularity, but it would always show an error 
during the last two hours of its running 
or before being re-w r ound. Gradually the 
competition between fusee watches and go¬ 
ing barrel watches became intensified. Fi¬ 
nally it was established to the satisfaction of 
the two parties in this country, who took op¬ 
posite views in the matter, that it was pos¬ 
sible to make a watch with a going barrel 
which would run with the same regularity as 
a fusee watch, and the fact was clearly es¬ 
tablished that it could be accomplished by 
proportioning the momentum of the balance 
to the motive power in such a manner, that, 
should the vibration of the balance be dis¬ 
turbed by local or external influences, the 
motive power stood in such proportion to 
the momentum of the balance and the es¬ 
capement, that they would not disturb the 
regularity of the time-keeping, or, in other 


words, that the time lost in the motion of 
the balance in unlocking the escapement was 
recovered by the accelerating effect of the 
impulse, no matter what the extent of the 
vibration might be. Heretofore the large 
sized English fusee watches usually carried 
balances weighing as much as 16 grains, 
while the weight of the balances in our best 
American going barrel watches is probably 
between 8 and 9 grains. It is not the weight 
of the balance only, however, which is our 
guide, but it is the momentum of the balance 
with which we have to deal. 

A balance measuring 1 inch in diameter, 
controlled by a balance spring which brings 
it to time, would have to be four times as 
heavy if it were only y, inch in diameter, if 
it were to be controlled by the same balance 
spring as the former, being 1 inch in diame¬ 
ter. But why? Because the rim of the 
small balance is only half the distance from 
the center, and any given point in the rim 
would have only half the distance to travel 
for an equal angular motion with the large 
balance. But the smaller balance would 
have double the momentum of the large bal¬ 
ance, because momentum is weight multi¬ 
plied by velocity, and if we multiply the 
weight of the small balance, which is four 
times as great as that of the large balance, 
by the velocity, which is one-half of the large 
balance, we have a momentum twice as 
great, 

or, 1 inch x 16 grs. = 16. 

£ “ X 64 grs. = 32. 

Here, then, we have the power to regulate 
the momentum of the balance and make it 
suitable to any watch, and here, also, we 
have the power to make the momentum 
suitable to any motive power and to make a 
watch run uniform, no matter how much 
the extent of vibration may vary. 

If this is true, can we wonder how some 
watches, even with isochronized hairsprings, 
run so much poorer than some others. The 
whole trouble in such cases lies in the badly 
proportioned balances, if the escapement and 
everything else has been attended to. Long 
and short forks, lockings and impulse angles, 
pivots, etc., all are factors in the problem. 

Next: As I understand it, the prevalent 
and accepted theory is that the balance 
spring must always be made to suit the bal¬ 
ance for isochronism. But we can also so 
change the momentum of the balance, as to 
produce isochronism without ever changing 



ISOCHRONISM. 


35 


the spring one particle. Small and heavy 
balances have a greater tendency to go fast 
in the short vibrations, while large and light 
balances (both being to time with the same 
balance spring) have a tendency to go fast 
on short motions, and all this is owing to a 
different development of the momentum be¬ 
tween the two. The small and heavy bal¬ 
ance develops its momentum faster and over¬ 
comes the resistance of the balance spring 
easier on the long vibrations, and causes a 
watch to go slow on the long vibrations. 
The larger and lighter balance develops its 
momentum slower; in fact, it can never de¬ 
velop the same amount of momentum under 
any condition as the small balance, because 
the proportion between the arm and the rim 
shows a less pronounced difference. 

A similar theory applies to watches hav¬ 
ing slow and quick trains. The slower the 
vibrations of a watch the less control has the 
balance spring over the balance, if the latter 
is of the same proportion as the balance of 
a quick beat train, and the development of 
the momentum of the balance in a slow beat 
train is proportionately faster than the de¬ 
velopment of the force of the balance spring, 
the latter being, by the very force of cir¬ 
cumstances, weaker and incapable of devel¬ 
oping the same force as the balance spring 
in the quick beat train. The effect on the 
isochronous condition of the balance springs 
of the two becomes at once apparent. 


ISOCHRONISM. 

A LTERING the length of the balance 
. spring brings a multitude of new factors 
into operation, which more justly claim and 
are constantly quoted as being the actual 
causes of isochronism and its variation ; and 
this may explain the confusion of ideas and 
the contradictions so general on this subject. 
Most writers and practical men, who do not 
take the trouble to theorize, are quite sure of 
the fact that a variation of length causes a 
variation of isochronism. Saunier’s book on 
horology quotes and indorses various au¬ 
thorities to show that a certain length of 
spring is necessary to secure isochronism, 
especially with spiral or flat springs. Mr. 
Glasgow, in his admirable practical articles 
on springing, contends for length as a prirm 
element in securing isochronism, and makes 
no reference to the spring being made ec¬ 
centric or small, except as a matter of con¬ 
venience or as a means of altering the ad¬ 


justment for position. I can find no refer¬ 
ence to the eccentric action of the spring as 
a means of curing errors of isochronism, 
until Mr. Kullberg gave me the idea, and 
there can be no doubt but that it is correct. 

Like will cure like—that which causes the 
disease will cure it. The want of concen¬ 
tricity or truth in action is the cause of va¬ 
riation in long and short arcs, or want 
of isochronism, and long springs, tapered 
springs, Breguet springs and double-curve 
springs are used and proved to promote isoch¬ 
ronism ; yet notwithstanding the inferiority 
of the flat spring—a single look at which in 
action shows its marked inferiority—practi¬ 
cal results are obtained with it equaling the 
more perfect springs; and if acceleration of 
the short arc is desired, to neutralize the re¬ 
tarding influence of oil in cold, is most easily 
obtained by it. This shows that the error 
which is incident to this spring, as usually 
applied, causes the watch to gain on the 
long arcs and lose on the short. By revers¬ 
ing this error, we can utilize it. A spring 
pinned to be quite true at the collet and stud 
when at rest, develops a series of eccentric 
circles of increasing eccentricity as the arc 
of vibration increases. As the eccentricity, 
so is the error in long and short arcs. A 
spring being most easily wound when most 
true, the eccentricity causes a relative in¬ 
crease of power or butting action, which ac¬ 
celerates the action where it occurs. If we 
fix the spring on the collet and stud so as to 
throw the eccentricity when at rest near the 
stud, we can have all the eccentricity in the 
short arcs of vibration causing their acceler¬ 
ation, or, dividing it between the long and 
short arcs, secure a circulation of the spring 
in the middle of its vibration. The matter 
may be summed up as one of convenience, 
and in springing with the flat, the circularity 
of the spring, with the balance turned half 
the distance it usually vibrates, must be 
created, if it is to be isochronous. The Bre¬ 
guet and chronometer springs do not, when 
perfect, move on the balance circle, but with 
it; the flat spring travels to and from the 
center if pinned quite true, and the gpring 
circle is only eccentric when at rest, and the 
whole of its eccentric action is on one side 
of the balance, on which it exerts a con¬ 
stantly increasing influence. When pinned 
out of circle when at rest, the circle travels 
with a diminishing eccentricity to the cen¬ 
ter of the balance, then becomes concentric 
with it, and the increased motion creates in- 



36 


TO POLISH A WHEEL. 


creasing eccentricity on the other side of the 
center of the balance. By this means the 
eccentricity of the spring may be utilized to 
secure or vary isochronism ; and this, doubt¬ 
less, is the basis of all the changes that are 
recognized as resulting from altering the 
length of spring. Perfect truth in a spiral 
spring being impossible, the spring is shifted 
about until the error it contains is neutralized 
or balanced. In the face of this fact, one 
will be astonished at the opposite opinions 
expressed on this point. Urban Jurgersen 
states that the taped spring will give isoch¬ 
ronism, which is correct, and twice asserts 
that the short arcs are quickened with ordi¬ 
nary springs by increasing the length of 
spring. This is contrary to what is usually 
asserted, though some writers say, if the 
short arcs are not accelerated by taking up 
the spring, let some out. Mr. Immisch re¬ 
pudiates length as of any consequence; and 
Mr. F. Cole, in his treatise, says the altered 
length of spring has of itself no influence as 
a principle in counteracting errors of isoch¬ 
ronism, which is chiefly effected by the 
change of length, altering the mechanical re¬ 
lation of the collet with the stud. Mr. Cole’s 
essay, I am inclined to think, is the most 
valuable one we have on the subject, as he 
proves that the subject of isochronism of the 
balance includes the whole art of watchmak¬ 
ing, and also shows that isochronism, pure 
and simple, is only to be found apart from 
watchworks, as a branch of pneumatics re¬ 
lating to vibrating or oscillating bodies, 
though he makes the singular mistake of as¬ 
serting that no sufficient test of the isochro¬ 
nism of vibrating strings, reeds or pipes can 
be had in long and short arcs of vibration, as 
these only have an extent of a few seconds 
time after any given blow or impulsion. 

I will conclude with an experiment show¬ 
ing the value of the Kullberg idea of putting 
the spring close to the stud or index. A 
common eight-day lever timepiece, a con¬ 
stant eye-sore, owing to its gaining some 
three or four minutes when fully wound, and 
losing the same when nearly run down, 
offered an inviting field for experiment; and 
makfng no alteration beyond setting its spring 
well toward the stud, no difference could be 
detected between the first and last of the 
eight days in its time, which seemed perfect. 
I have not succeeded in getting it to gain in 
the short arcs, and a recent experiment in 
putting the spring very much out of circle 
toward the stud, seems to develop so much 


friction at the pivots, which are not jeweled 
—it being a common Yankee with the usual 
steel holes—that the original fault seems to 
develop; and it may be observed that bal¬ 
ancing the friction at the pivots, as shown 
by increased arc of vibration, and observing 
the circular appearance of the spring in 
actual motion, is the best practical guide for 
success in this direction. 


TO POLISH A WHEEL. 

ASY as it may seem, nevertheless the 
polishing of a wdieel is quite a difficult 
matter—that is, to a workman who is not 
accustomed to polishing—to insure success. 
It is like everything else in watch work, it 
requires a fair amount of practice, personal 
instruction and the greatest cleanliness. If 
the operator is unsuccessful, he may, in the 
majority of cases, trace his failure to a want 
of cleanliness. Put a cork, cut flat on top, 
in the vise, place the wheel on the cork as 
far as the pinion will allow ; take a bluestone, 
which was previously reduced to an even 
face by having been rubbed on a stone, and 
water, and stone the wheels smooth and flat, 
at the same time keep turning the wheel 
round with the left hand; then wash it out 
and put in a box with some slaked powdered 
lime; the object of this is merely to dry it, 
and prevent the pinion from getting stained 
or rusty. Then brush it out nice and clean, 
put another cork, cut clean and flat, in a 
vise; then pound on a stake some fine red- 
stuff. Some workmen add a little rouge, 
but that is according to fancy. Take a slip 
of tin, about the size of a watchmaker’s file, 
only thicker; file the end of one side flat 
and smooth, charge it with a little of the 
red-stuff and polish the wheel, keeping it 
turning all the time with the left hand, and 
do not leave off until the wheel and tin pol¬ 
isher are almost dry, so that you can see the 
polish; and, if to your satisfaction, clean it 
off with pieces of soft bread, and brush it 
out. If it has scratches on it bread them 
off, and clean off the tin and charge it again 
with the red-stuff. As said, cleanliness is of 
great importance, for if there be any grit 
about the red-stuff, polisher, or the fingers 
of the workman, the work will be full of 
scratches. 

The above system applies to solid train 
wheels only. 

Escape wheels are polished in the same 
way, but before they are put on the pinion. 




FUNCTION OF INERTIA IN TIIE ACTION OF ESCAPEMENT. 


37 


Solid wheels, such as fusee and movement 
wheels, are polished in the turns, using soft 
wood or burdock pith instead of tin. There 
is another way for polishing them, however, 
which is quite as often employed, by which 
they are fixed to a small brass block. The 
block is heated in a bluing pan, and a piece 
of resin passed lightly over it so as to leave 
a very thin varnish only, which is quite 
enough to make the wheel adhere; there 
should be circles marked on the face of the 
block as a guide for fixing the wheel as 
nearly central as possible, or else a small pin 
in the center of the block to go through the 
hole in the wheel with the same object. The 
wheel fixed to the block is first rubbed till 
quite flat on a piece of bluestone having a 
true surface, which is kept moistened with 
water; it is rubbed with a circular motion by 
means of a pointer (generally a drill stock), 
and pressed down on the middle of the back 
of the block, which is hollow. The wheel is 
thoroughly cleaned and then polished on a 
block of grain tin with sharp red-stuff and 
oil well beaten up previously. The block of 
tin rests on a leather pad. When one side 
of the wheel is finished it is placed again in 
the bluing pan. The old resin is cleaned 
off, and the finished side of the wheel fixed 
to the block. After both sides are polished, 
the wheel is placed in spirits of wine to re¬ 
move any resin adhering to it. 

Pierced wheels are first rubbed flat on a 
cork with a bluestone. After cleansing they 
are polished with a soft tin polisher and 
moderately sharp red-stuff, using a slightly 
circular stroke. Instead of a plain cork 
some finishers use a half round cork resting 
in a notch cut in another cork. When quite 
smooth the wheels are washed in soap and 
water, and burnished on a clean hard cork 
with a burnisher well rubbed on a board with 
rotten-stone or red-stuff. 

Another method for polishing wheels is 
also much employed: Grind the wheel 
well upon a cork, and pay strict attention to 
remove all the burr from the limbs. Then 
polish with a zinc file moistened with crocus 
and alcohol. After the wheel has been 
polished with it, take a sword file and finish 
polishing with it. Before using, the sword 
file is to be sharpened and rubbed with a 
little wax, after which the file is wiped off 
upon a piece of cloth, so that only a film of 
wax remains upon it. A brass wheel may 
also be polished in the following manner, 
viz.: by grinding it with slate stone and oil, 


and polishing with diamantine upon box¬ 
wood with a few short strokes. For sharp¬ 
ening the sword file emery paper is much 
employed, after which the file is in gradation 
sharpened upon decreasing by emery. 


INERTIA. 

HE meaning of scientific terms, says a 
contemporary, is often in part lost when 
they are employed by practical men. Thus the 
word inertia is, with them, synonymous with 
equilibrium ; a balance of a watch, a wheel 
or a pair of pallets is in a state of inertia, 
according to the erroneous language of the 
workshop, when that balance, etc., is equili¬ 
brated on the horizontal axis in all the po¬ 
sitions we can cause it to assume. Such an 
employment of the term is unfortunate. 

Inertia is that property by which a body, 
when at rest, remains at rest, and when in 
motion remains in motion. It is exemplified 
in the excessive resistance offered by a body 
to being suddenly set in motion or brought 
suddenly to rest when in motion. 

A horse, harnessed to a heavy wagon, 
strains violently and makes great efforts in 
order to set it in motion, but draws it along 
with ease when this is once accomplished. 
On the contrary, when the wagon has at¬ 
tained a considerable velocity, the horse 
cannot stop suddenly without receiving a 
violent push forward. These two effects 
are due to the inertia of the mass of the 
wagon. 


FUNCTION OF INERTIA IN THE AC¬ 
TION OF ESCAPEMENT. — HEAVY 
WHEELS. 

VERY wheel, however light it be, must 
have some appreciable weight; it is, 
therefore, subject to the law of inertia. 
Hence results that when we wish to set in 
motion a wheel round its axis it cannot com¬ 
mence moving at once ; there is a transition 
period of rest which, although not always 
perceptible, is none the less real, and the 
wheel only attains its maximum velocity 
after a certain arc has been traversed by 
any point on its circumference. 

As the effects of inertia thus increase with 
the weight of the body, and its velocity, it is 
important to note the influence on escape¬ 
ments, especially during the lift action ; the 
wheel then travels during a very short space 
of time with a considerable velocity. The 






38 


ERRORS WITH REGARD TO LIGHT WHEELS. 


following example of the influence of inertia 
has actually occurred in practice: In a de¬ 
tent escapement, with an escape wheel full 
heavy, the motion of the balance was slug¬ 
gish and the vibration was of but moderate 
extent. The workman engaged on it cut 
away part of the interior of the wheel and 
reduced its arms ; in short, materially dimin¬ 
ished its weight, and, by this simple change, 
very appreciably increased the extent of the 
vibration of the balance. 

It is hardly necessary to explain that the 
heavy wheel, offering an excessive resistance 
to motion, supplemented the resistance 
caused by friction and oil; as the wheel 
was longer in commencing its motion and 
turned more sluggishly, it did not come in 
contact with the lever of impulse until the 
latter had traversed a considerable portion 
of its angular path. The final result was a 
noise and but slight impulse. The wheel, 
after being reduced, commenced its motion 
sooner, and, almost immediately coming in 
contact with the lever, accelerated its motion 
to the required extent. 


ERRORS WITH REGARD TO LIGHT 
WHEELS. 

ROM observations analogous to that 
above described, it is generally assumed 
and set down as a mechanical truth, that in 
every escapement the wheel should be as light 
as possible. A question which has not received 
sufficient attention has thus been decided in 
a very absolute manner, and the solution of 
a particular problem has been made binding 
on all the escapements used in horology. 
Would a wheel entirely wanting in inertia be 
a valuable acquisition ? There seems to be 
great reason to suppose that it would not. 
But although such a case could not occur, 
since the metals employed always have an 
appreciable weight, it is none the less useful 
to point out that the velocity of rotation to 
be communicated to a wheel depends on the 
manner in which it influences the lever of 
the balance, and on the amount of energy it 
is required to give out while actually impell¬ 
ing the balance. The following observation 
of a clever watchmaker, M. Moinet, will do 
more to explain the subject than a consider¬ 
able amount of argument, and will also illus¬ 
trate the converse of the case above cited: 
A chronometer escapement worked well 
although the wheel was somewhat heavy, 


but when this was rendered lighter it caused 
the escapement to catch. The excessive 
lightness of the wheel was evidently the cause 
of this fault, as it changed position more 
rapidly than the balance; that is to say, in¬ 
stead of contact with the face of the pallet 
when it had time to recoil to a suitable po¬ 
sition, the wheel commenced moving with 
considerable rapidity and struck the angular 
extremity of the lever, producing a butting 
action.* 

Every watchmaker is aware that a slight 
displacement of the lever of impulse is all 
that is required in order to avoid stoppage, 
and that the above case is only quoted as 
an example of the influence of inertia. Ex¬ 
periment and a consideration of the nature 
of the metals actually employed show with¬ 
out doubt that in those watches in which the 
vibrations are rapid, it is necessary to make 
the escape wheel as light as possible, but 
care must be taken not to unduly diminish 
its solidity. The word solidity does not 
here merely imply that the wheel must resist 
certain causes of breakage or distortion ; but 
an escapement wheel must be absolutely 
firm throughout, and this firmness can only 
be secured by care in the choice of the 
metal employed and of the form given to the 
wheel. Thus, an arm of a wheel of rectan¬ 
gular section is less rigid when placed edge¬ 
ways than when its broader face is parallel 
to the plane of the wheel. With regard to 
such horological appliances as are regarded 
by a pendulum or a heavy annular balance, 
it remains for experiment to ascertain whether 
a certain slight amount of resistance due to 
inertia in the wheel is not necessary, since 
the wheel must move with a velocity deter¬ 
mined (i) by the greater or less inertia of a 
train of wheels of a definite weight which 
abandons its state of rest or recoil; and (2) 
by the velocity acquired by the lever on 
which the wheel acts, a lever whose motion 
is slow in comparison with the velocities met 
with in watch movements. Inertia is pro¬ 
portional to the masses of bodies when their 
velocities are equal, and to the squares 
of their velocities when their masses are 
equal. 

* The editor urges the following objection to this 
conclusion: This does not appear a sound argument 
against a light wheel. Evidently the heavy wheel 
moved slower on account of its weight, and there¬ 
fore allowed the balance time to travel far enough to 
receive the scape wheel tooth on the impulse roller; 
set the roller back half a degree and this error could 
not occur, no matter how light the escape wheel. 




CLOCK REPAIRING. 


39 


PIVOTING A BALANCE STAFF. 

P INIONS vary, so do working methods. 

We all may have our peculiar notions 
how a job should be done, and it is not well 
for any one to prescribe the way in which, and 
in no other, it should be done. Let us take 
as an illustration the putting of a pivot into 
a staff. Some say it should first be driven 
out of the balance; I never do it, however, 
and I flatter myself that I do a job not in¬ 
ferior to that of many. I am convinced 
that both the staff and the balance are liable 
to sustain more injury by being driven out 
and put back than by carefully drawing the 
temper. If the watch is of so fine a quality 
that the temper might not be drawn, then 
for the same reason a pivot should not be 
put into it, but a new staff. In such a case 
I always turn the rivet off, so that the staff 
comes out easily, without straining the bal¬ 
ance. 

Many years of experience have taught me 
to regard my way of putting in a staff or 
pinion to be the best. It is as follows : Take 
a slice of potato, a quarter of an inch or so 
thick, and another much thinner, place your 
wheel or balance fairly in the middle of the 
hole between the two slices, the thin slice on 
the side in which the pivot is to be put. If 
it is the lower pivot, blow a jet of gas parallel 
with the balance. This ought not to alter 
the temper of the balance. If it is a top 
pivot, stick a piece of potato on the other 
pivot and blow a sharp jet of gas through 
the hole. The slices of potato must be 
pressed firmly together, and fastened by 
sticking a few pins obliquely through them. 
Now cement a brass or ivory collet on with 
beeswax, place it in the turns, with the 
broken end running on the stump or shoulder. 
See that the balance runs true and flat; you 
will probably find it all right; if not, make it 
so before proceeding further. 

I might say here that I do all this kind of 
work with the bow and turns, and consider 
it the only correct way. I have been fooled 
a few times in doing this kind of a job with 
a lathe and chuck, and found that when I 
supposed the job was finished, I have dis¬ 
covered that the end gripped in the chuck, 
instead of running to its center, had been 
describing a small circle. Being satisfied 
that the balance runs true, turn or reduce 
with a file to the shoulder, whether it be 
long or short—having previously noticed or 
gauged the length of it, down to the part on 
which the spring collet fits. Find your cen¬ 


ter as near as you can; it is desirable to get 
the center, but not absolutely necessary, with 
the top pivot. Chamfer it out with a piece 
of hard steel with three-sided point. Put it 
into the turns, and proceed to drill it with a 
large drill, and see to it that the old pivot 
in this and all subsequent operations turns 
on a brass center, clean and well oiled, or 
you may find to your discomfort by the time 
your job is finished, that it is worn so short 
as to render the staff useless. I have for 
several years made my drills of piano wire. 
It is very soft when annealed, and very 
strong with a hard temper, and in just the 
proper temper for pivots, as you buy it. Try 
it once, and you will never use anything 
else. 

Harden your small drills by giving a red 
heat, and a vigorous shake in the air; large 
ones by sticking them in a potato, soap or 
wax. When hard, clean them by holding 
them loosely with finger and thumb, resting 
on a cork in the vise, and rub with pumice 
stone as you would any piece of steel work 
for a watch. If you use the wire I have 
recommended, just a tinge of straw color 
will cut well. Having drilled the hole deep 
enough, fit your pivot in by filing first, and 
then grinding it in with a little oil-stone dust; 
when fitted well, cut the piece off as long as 
required, to give room for turning, take a 
little off the end that goes in the staff, with 
a slip of stone, put your balance and staff in 
the riveting stake, and drive your pivot with 
a few light taps of the hammer, moving your 
job round a bit between each tap. Point 
the new pivot, and put it into your turns ; 
your balance will now show any deviation 
from the center. Alter the point till the 
balance runs perfectly true, then proceed to 
turn a new shoulder and pivot. All this will 
apply to a wheel and pinion. 


CLOCK REPAIRING. 

CONSIDERABLE part of the life of the 
country watchmaker, says a correspond¬ 
ent in one of our European exchanges, is spent 
in repairing and cleaning clocks, so that a 
few practical remarks on this subject may 
perhaps be of use to some who may not have 
the advantage of being able to refer to an 
experienced workman when in a difficulty. 
Occasionally even good workmen are non¬ 
plussed, an instance of which occurred only 
a few days before writing. A fine chime 
clock by a good maker was sent to him with 




40 


CLOCK REPAIRING. 


a message “ that it stopped sometimes, and 
the chimes persisted in getting wrong ” ; it 
had only recently been in the hands of a 
good workman, who had passed it as correct. 
On examination the correspondent found the 
quarter gathering pallet split right through 
the boss, consequently when the train was 
stopped by the tail of the gathering pallet 
engaging with the pin in the rack, the pallet 
opened and allowed the square on the arbor 
to rotate, thus throwing the chimes into con¬ 
fusion. On taking the clock to pieces and 
opening the barrels, he found, as he had 
anticipated, that several of the inner coils 
of the springs were lying close round the 
barrel arbors, proving that the springs were 
exhausted or set; this accounted for the 
stopping which occurred toward the end of 
the week. The correspondent mentioned 
this instance simply to show how easy it is 
for even an experienced workman to be de¬ 
ceived unless he pursues a methodical course 
in examining for faults. 

The course that I have always followed has 
been: After taking the movement from its 
case, removing the hands, dial, minute cock, 
and bridge, to try the escapement with some 
power on, and note any faults there. Next 
remove the cock and pallets—putting a peg 
between the escape wheel arms to prevent it 
from running down—and carefully let down 
the spring; you will meet with a difficulty 
here sometimes; if the spring has been set 
up too far, and the clock is fully wound up, 
it may not be possible to move the barrel 
arbor sufficiently to get the click out of the 
ratchet. In many old clocks there will be 
found a contrivance to meet this difficulty. 
It is simply a hole drilled at the bottom of 
and between the great wheel teeth directly 
over the tail of the click, so that it is possible 
to put a key on the fusee square and the point 
of a fine joint pusher through the hole, release 
the click, and allow the fusee to turn gently 
back until it is down. This is a great conven¬ 
ience sometimes, and it is a wonder that it is 
not still done. Having let down the spring, 
try all pivots for wide holes, and if it is a 
striking clock, do the same with the striking 
train, paying particular attention to the pal¬ 
let pinion front pivot to see if it is worn, and 
the rack depth made unsafe thereby—also 
seeing that none of the rack teeth are bent 
or broken. Having noted the faults, if any, 
I take the clock to pieces, and look over all 
the pivots, and note those that require re¬ 
polishing. Finally I take out the barrel 


cover and see to the condition of the springs; 
as I have already referred to the appearance 
of a spring when it is exhausted or soft, I 
need not do so again here. 

In most cases, some repairs will be re¬ 
quired to the pallets, as these nearly always 
show signs of wear first; if they are not 
much cut, the marks can be polished out 
without much trouble—and for this purpose 
you will find that a small disc of corundum, 
about three inches in diameter, mounted 
truly on an arbor, and run at a high speed 
on the lathe, will be of great assistance; 
finishing off with the iron or steel polisher 
and sharp red-stuff. If you have to close 
the pallets to make the escape correct, see 
that the pallet arms are not left hard, or you 
may break them. 

If the pallets require much alteration, or 
you have to make a new pair, use any one 
of the tools found at the material stores. 
After making any alteration in the pallets, 
you will generally find it necessary to cor¬ 
rect the depth. Should it only require a 
slight alteration, probably it will be suffi¬ 
cient to knock out the steady pins in the 
cock, and screw it on so that it can be shifted 
by the fingers until you have the depth cor¬ 
rect, then screw it tight and broach out the 
steady pin holes, and fit new pins. The re¬ 
pairer will occasionally meet with a pallet 
arbor that has been bent to correct the depth. 
This is a practice that cannot be too strongly 
condemned, as it throws an unequal pressure 
on the pivots, and causes them to cut rapidly. 
If much alteration in the depth is required, 
it may be necessary to put in a new back 
pallet hole; this can be made from a piece 
of hollow bushing, broached out and turned 
true on an arbor, and to a length equal to 
the thickness of the plate. It is not safe to 
rely on the truth of this bushing, unless it is 
turned on an arbor first. The hole in the 
plate is now with the round filer drawn in 
the direction required, and opened with a 
broach from the inside until the bushing 
enters about half way. Of course, in finish¬ 
ing broaching the hole, you will roughen the 
extremities to form rivets. Drive the bush¬ 
ing in, and rivet it with a round-faced punch 
from the outside, reverse it, and rest the 
bushing on the punch, and rivet the inside 
with the pane of the hammer; remove any 
excess of brass with the file, chamfer out the 
oil sink, and stone off any file marks; finally 
opening the hole for the pivot to the proper 
size. Of course, if you have a depthing tool 


CLOCK REPAIRING. 


4i 


that will take in the escape wheel and pal¬ 
lets, it will be quicker to put them in the 
tool, fill up both holes with solid bushings, 
and replant them. 

The repairer will also very frequently meet 
with a scape pinion that has become so badly 
cut or worn as to be useless, and one can¬ 
not always purchase a new one of the right 
size; in this case, it will be necessary to 
make it from the wire which can be obtained 
of every size at the tool shops. In sectoring 
the pinion wire to the wheel, bear in mind 
that it will become slightly smaller in filling 
up. As perhaps some workmen may not 
have had any experience in making pinions, 
I will briefly describe the process; but con¬ 
siderable practice is required to make good 
shaped pinions quickly and well. 

A piece of pinion wire of a slightly greater 
diameter than the pinion is to be when 
finished is cut about one-eighth of an inch 
longer than required, and the position of the 
leaves or head marked with two notches 
with a file. The level portion of the wire 
that is not required is now carefully filed 
down on a filing block, taking care not to 
remove any of the arbor in so doing; a cen¬ 
ter is then filed at each end true with the 
arbor, and these centers turned true through 
a hole in a runner or center in the throw. 
If this has been carefully done, the pinion 
will be nearly true; it is now set quite true, 
and the arbor and faces of the pinion turned 
square and smooth. The pinion is now filed 
out true, using a hollow-edged bottoming 
file for the spaces, and a pinion rounding 
file for the sides of the leaves. In using 
the bottoming file, the pinion is rested in the 
gallows tool and held in the fingers of the 
leaves, when finishing, to keep them flat. 
The file marks are now taken out with fine 
emery and oil; the polishers that I always 
have used for this purpose are pieces of 
wainscot oak, about a quarter of an inch 
thick, five inches broad and six inches long, 
used endway of the grain. One end is planed 
to a V-shape, to go between the leaves, and 
the other cut into grooves by rubbing it on 
the sharp edges of the pinion itself, which 
speedily cuts it into grooves to fit. The 
pinion is rested, while being polished, in a 
block of soft deal, which allows it to give to 
the hand, and keep it flat. 

When the file marks are all out, the pinion 
is ready for hardening. Twist a piece of 
stout binding wire around it, and cover it 
with soap; heat it carefully in a dead fire, 


and quench it in a pail of water that has 
been stirred into a whirlpool by an assistant, 
taking care to dip it vertically. Having 
dried it, it is covered with tallow and held 
over a clear fire, until the tallow ignites; it 
is allowed to burn for a moment, and then 
blown out and allowed to cool. The leaves 
are now polished out with crocus and oil in 
the same way that they previously were with 
emery. Now, if the pinion is put in the 
centers and tried, it will probably be found 
to have warped a little in hardening. This 
is corrected in the following manner. 

The rounding side of the arbor is laid on 
a soft iron stake, and the hollow side stretched 
by a series of light blows with the pane of 
the hammer, given at regular intervals along 
the curve. Having got the leaves to run 
quite true by this means, turn both arbors 
true and polish them with the double sticks 
—these are simply two pieces of thin box¬ 
wood, about three-eighths of an inch wide 
and three inches long—fastened together at 
one extremity and open at the other; be¬ 
tween these the arbor is pinched with oil 
and fine emery, and they are traversed from 
end to end, to take out the graver marks. 

The brass for the collet, to which the 
wheel is riveted, is now drilled, broached, 
and turned roughly to shape on an arbor. 
The position on the pinion arbor is marked 
with a fine nick, and the collet soldered on 
with soft solder and a spirit-lamp, taking 
care not to draw the temper of the arbor 
when doing so. Wash it out in soda and 
water, and polish the arbors with crocus, 
turn the collet true, and fit the wheel on. 
If the pinion face is to be polished, it is now 
done, the facing-tool being a piece of iron 
about one-sixteenth of an inch thick, with a 
slit in it to fit over the arbor with slight fric¬ 
tion, and using oil-stone dust first, and then 
sharp red-stuff. 

Generally, cut pinions are used for the 
centers, and in this case the body of the ar¬ 
bor is sufficiently large to allow the front 
pivot to be made from the solid arbor; but 
in some movements, particularly those used 
for spring dials, the center pinions are made 
from pinion wire in the manner just de¬ 
scribed ; but for the front pivot a hollow 
tube of hardened and tempered steel is sol¬ 
dered on to the arbor. This piece should 
always project sufficiently far through the 
pivot hole to allow it to be squared to re¬ 
ceive the friction spring which carries the 
motion work. In cases where this pivot is 


42 


ACCELERATION. 


much cut, it is best to remove this piece and 
substitute a new one, and as these pinions 
are very long and flexible, some difficulty will 
be experienced in turning this pivot unless 
some form of backstay is used to support the 
arbor, and prevent it springing from the 
graver. _ 

THE PENDULUM CRUTCH. 

HE clock repairer will occasionally come 
in contact with a clock with a crutch filed 
so wide by some botch that there is room 
for two pendulum wires to work freely in it, 
and the result is that he must either make a 
new crutch or solder a piece on each side in 
order to make it fit properly again. It is 
well known by practical men that many 
make a mistake in this particular; an unduly 
wide crutch is detrimental, while one that is 
too narrow will soon stop the clock entirely; 
it should be just wide enough for the pen¬ 
dulum to move freely in it, when this is at 
the outside arc of oscillation. Although 
there is not much difference between it when 
in this position and when at zero, still there 
is a little difference, even when the sides of 
the crutch are very thin ; but when the sides 
are a little thicker, it makes a difference in 
proportion to their thickness; therefore, 
when it is a thickly made crutch we are 
obliged to make a little more room for the 
pendulum, in order for it to act freely at 
the outside arc of oscillation. 

The reason of this is the crutch is work¬ 
ing in a circle around the pivots of the tail 
piece and pallets, while the pendulum is 
working from a suspension string, which is 
ever subject to deviation from a circular 
path, while the tail piece must necessarily 
keep the same distance from its central 
action. Now, from this we see that an es¬ 
capement which requires a wide arc of oscil¬ 
lation, requires also a wider crutch in order 
to give the pendulum its proper play. The 
performance of an escapement of this kind, 
when it runs to an extreme, is to be regarded 
as doubtful; for if a crutch must be cut so 
wide in order to be at the outside of the arc, 
see what a quantity of space there is when 
the pendulum is at zero. At every tick the 
pendulum must cross this space in the 
crutch, and instead of the clock saying “ tick, 
tick,” it says “ clink, clink.” Take the Dutch 
clock for an example. Let the crutch be 
wide, and the noise caused by the pendu¬ 
lum striking the side of the crutch will be as 
great as the tick proper; hence, ‘clink, 


clink, clink,” is the monotonous tones we 
hear. 

Suppose a clock is running in this form 
for a long time without any oil, the result is 
both wire and crutch are considerably worn, 
and there is no measuring the extra friction 
in consequence. The only proper way to 
correct such a job is to fit a new pendulum 
wire and crutch, noticing that they act cor¬ 
rectly with each other when replaced. Al¬ 
ways avoid letting the pendulum wire ride 
on the back of the crutch ; let each hang 
perpendicularly at the required place, so that 
the wire touches nothing but the sides of the 
crutch, and all is well. 


ACCELERATION. 

T is noticed that new chronometers and 
watches, instead of steadily gaining or los¬ 
ing a certain number of seconds each day, go 
faster day by day. There is no certainty as 
to the amount or ratio of this acceleration, 
nor as to the period which must elapse be¬ 
fore the rate becomes steady, but an increase 
of a second a month for a year may be taken 
as the average extent in marine chronom¬ 
eters. 

It is pretty generally agreed among chro¬ 
nometer makers that the cause of accelera¬ 
tion is seated in the balance spring, though 
some assert that centrifugal action slightly 
enlarges the balance, if the arc of vibration 
is large, as it would be when the oil is fresh, 
and that as the vibration falls off, centrifugal 
action is lessened, and acceleration ensues 
from the smaller diameter of the balance. 
Though thin balances do undoubtedly in¬ 
crease slightly in size in the long vibrations 
from centrifugal action, this theory is dis¬ 
posed of by the fact that old chronometers 
do not accelerate after re-oiling. Others 
aver that the unnatural connection of the 
metals composing the compensation balance 
is responsible for the mischief, and that after 
being subjected to heat the balance hardly 
returns to its original dimensions again. If 
true, this may be a reason for exposing new 
chronometers, before they are rated, to a 
somewhat higher temperature than they are 
likely to meet with in use, as is the practice 
of some makers, but then chronometers ac¬ 
celerate on their own rates when they are 
kept in a constant temperature, and also if a 
new spring is put to an old balance, or even 
if a plain uncut balance is used. 

When the overcoil of a balance spring has 





TO MOUNT DIAMOND DRILLS AND GRAVERS. 


43 


been much bent or “ manipulated ” in tim¬ 
ing, it is noticed that the acceleration is sure 
to be excessive. This is just what might be 
expected, for a spring unduly bent so as to 
be weakened, but not absolutely crippled, 
recovers in time some of its elasticity. But 
however carefully a spring is bent, the ac¬ 
celeration is not entirely gotten rid of, though 
the spring is heated to redness and again 
hardened after its form is complete. There 
is little doubt that the tendency of springs is 
to increase slightly in strength for some time 
after they are subjected to continuous action, 
just as bells are found to alter a little in tone 
after use. As a proof that acceleration is 
due to the bending of the overcoil, an au¬ 
thority asserts that if the spring of an old 
chronometer is distorted and then restored to 
its original form, the chronometer will ac¬ 
celerate as though it were new. Helical 
springs of small diameter have been proposed 
by some as a means of lessening accelera¬ 
tion, on the ground that the curves are less 
liable to distortion in action than when the 
springs are larger. Springs elongate in 
hardening, and it has been suggested that 
they afterwards gradually shorten to their 
original length, and so cause acceleration, 
but there does not seem to be much warrant 
for this assumption. Unhardened springs 
do not accelerate, but they rapidly lose their 
strength, and are, therefore, not used. Flat 
springs do not accelerate as much as springs 
with overcoil. Palladium springs accelerate 
very much less than hardened steel springs. 


MEM. 

OTHING proclaims the skilful workman 
as well as the finish of the new article. Al¬ 
ways make the best finish possible ; nothing 
looks as well as a good shine. Your custom¬ 
ers demand it in everything, and it is a good 
sign. Encourage it all you can ; condemn 
the botch that sends out work without finish. 
A well arranged set of polishing tools saves 
much time ; keep them always in good order, 
and remember to exclude dirt and dust. 


WATCH OIL. 

HAVE always prepared an excellent ar¬ 
ticle of watch oil from deer’s or elk’s feet; 
take off the skin, prepare the feet with great 
cleanliness; fry them out well, and filter the 
obtained fat through clean filtering paper. 
I have prepared my oil in this manner for 


twenty-five years, and it has kept well invari¬ 
ably, in jewel holes and cylinders up to 
seven years. 


TO MAKE PALLETS, UNLOCKING 
PALLETS, ETC. 

HIS may either be done on the lap or 
else by using files of soft steel, copper, or 
tin. In the first case the stones are roughed 
out while held by the hand, and the required 
form is given while holding them in a small 
carrier that fits into the T rest support, but 
the forms of such stones are so various that 
no special details can be given. Use dia¬ 
mond powders of different degrees of fine¬ 
ness, as in making jewel holes. 


TO BLEACH WATCH DIALS, ETC. 

ISSOLVE one-half ounce cyanide of 
potassium in a quart of hot water, and 
add two ounces strong liquor of ammonia, 
and one-half ounce spirits of wine (these two 
may have been mixed previously). Dip the 
dials, whether silver, gold, or gilt, in it for a 
few seconds, then put them in warm water; 
brush well with soap, and afterward brush, 
rinse, and dry in hot box-wood dust. An¬ 
other good plan is to gently heat the dials 
and dip in diluted nitric acid, but this must 
not be employed for dials with painted fig¬ 
ures, as these would be destroyed. 


OVERBANKING. 

NE of the causes of overbanking is that 
the steady pin is too far from the table 
roller; it may also happen at times that the 
roller jewel is a trifle too short, and will 
allow the fork to spring under it; if there 
are any forks at all—steady pin and roller 
jewel being right—there is no danger of 
overbanking. It is but seldom that the 
banking pins will allow overbanking, and 
they are mostly there for the purpose of 
keeping the fork from going so far that the 
jewel can strike inside of the same. How¬ 
ever, they must be far enough apart to allow 
the pallet to drop the tooth freely. 


TO MOUNT DIAMOND DRILLS AND 
GRAVERS. 

RILL a hole or fill a notch in the end 
of a piece of brass wire to correspond 
with the fragment of diamond ; heat the end 
in a spirit lamp and lay on it a piece of good 













44 


TO TIME A WATCH. 


sealing-wax or shellac. When this com¬ 
mences to melt, set the diamond in position 
and leave the whole to cool. Diamond 
drills are very commonly mounted at the 
end of a pin that has had its point filed off; 
mark a point at the end with a graver and 
drill the hole, which should be very shallow. 
Holding the pin in a pin-vise, with its point 
projecting about one-tenth of an inch, heat 
the vise in a lamp and proceed as above 
explained. 

HOW TO REPLACE A BALANCE 
STAFF. 

I T is quite a knack to select another bal¬ 
ance staff, when one is either ruined or 
lost. Take the watch partly down, that is, 
remove the balance bridge, the lever, scape 
wheel, the hands, dial, and face wheel, also, 
remove the cap jewel plate, the regulator, 
and cap jewel from the balance bridge. Now 
we will suppose there was nothing but the 
balance wheel and balance spring left, so re¬ 
move them and screw the balance bridge 
back into its place. There are several ways 
of getting the measure of a staff. Some 
watchmakers will just put a pair of calipers 
on the outside of balance bridge over the cen¬ 
ter of jewel hole, and get the outside meas¬ 
urement, and proceed to guess at the rest 
of the work. A simple way to measure, and 
perhaps as good as any in use, is to use a pair 
of three-screw calipers, at the points they turn 
outwardly in the form of a T, when they are 
closed. This tool is made for the express 
purpose of getting the measure under the 
bridges for balance staffs, or any other pinion 
wished to be replaced. These calipers being 
sharp at the points, you will just set them 
into the pivot hole, which will enable you to 
get the shoulder measure of your staff. The 
turning is done in the customary way. 

TO SHARPEN CUTTING TOOLS. 

ARBOLIC acid is recommended for 
moistening the tools with which hard¬ 
ened steel is worked. The effect of the 
grindstone is even said to be increased by 
the use of the acid. The dark and impure 
acid can be used for this purpose. 


TO EXTRACT BROKEN WATCH 
SCREWS. 

AKE a C-shaped cramp or bracket 
large enough to reach across the watch 
plates, very strong at the bow, so as to stand 


any screwing up without springing. Put a 
screw hole through each end and provide 
with two or three sets of steel screws with 
different sized hardened points, which points 
pass within the cramp. To use it, tighten 
that screw of the cramp which is against the 
point of the broken screw, and when you 
have a firm grip turn the whole tool round, 
and the broken screw will invariably be 
drawn out. _ 

TO GILD STEEL. 

ISSOLVE a certain quantity of gold in 
nitro-muriatic acid; boil the fluid to 
evaporation; again dissolve the residue in 
water, and add three times as much sulphuric 
ether. The fluid is then filled into a bottle, 
in which it is left to stand quietly for twenty- 
four hours, after which time it will have 
become fully settled. If the steel is then 
dipped into this fluid it will be gold-plated 
at once, and if certain portions of it were 
covered with g varnish reserve, a handsome 
drawing upon the steel will be produced. 


TO TIME A WATCH. 

I N ordinary watches two positions are 
taken, viz., pendant up or vertical, and 
dial up or horizontal. In the finer grade of 
work adjustments are made in the quarters, 
that is, with 3 up and 9 up. This adjust¬ 
ment is a delicate and often a difficult opera¬ 
tion, and it is only by constant study and 
application that the watchmaker can hope 
for success. The object of timing or adjust¬ 
ing to positions is to ascertain how far a 
change of position modifies the compensation 
and isochronism and to verify the poising of 
the balance. Saunier says the balance can¬ 
not possibly be accurately poised in all posi¬ 
tions if the pivots and pivot holes are not 
perfectly round, and the poising will be 
modified with a change of temperature if the 
two arms do not act identically; as will be 
the case when the metals are not homogene¬ 
ous, when one or both arms have been 
strained owing to want of skill on the part 
of the workman, or careless work, etc. After 
accurately timing in a vertical position with 
XII up, make it go for twelve hours with 
VI up and the same number of hours with 
III and IX up. Observe with care both 
the rates and the amplitude of the arcs and 
note them down. Assuming the pivots and 
pivot holes to be perfectly round and in 
good condition, and that the poising of the 










THE BALANCE. 


45 


balance has been previously tested with care 
by the ordinary means, if the variations in 
the four positions are slight the poising may 
be regarded as satisfactory. As a general, 
but not invariable, rule, a loss in one position 
on the rate observed in the inverse position 
may be taken to indicate that the weight of 
the upper part of the balance is excessive 
when it does not vibrate through an arc of 
360° or the lower part if the amplitude 
exceeds this amount. Independently of the 
balance this loss may be occasioned by 
excessive friction of the pivots due to a too 
great pressure owing to the caliper being 
faulty, or to a distortion of the hairspring 
causing its center of gravity to lie out of the 
axis of the balance. If the^e influences be¬ 
come at all considerable their correction will 
be beyond the power of the isochronal hair¬ 
spring, and indeed it will be impossible to 
counteract them. Changes in the rate on 
changing from the vertical to the horizontal 
position may also arise from the following 
causes: 1. The action of the escape wheel, 
which is different according as it tends to 
raise the balance staff or to force it laterally ; 
2, a hairspring that starts to one side and so 
displaces its center of gravity, a balance that 
is not well poised, pivots or pivot holes that 
are not perfectly round, faults which, al¬ 
though of but little importance in the vertical 
position of the balance staff, become serious 
when it is horizontal; 3, the more marked 
portion of the friction of the pivots may 
take place against substances of different 
degrees of hardness in the two cases, the end 
stones being frequently harder than the 
jewels. Saunier further says that satisfac¬ 
tory results will be obtained in most cases 
by employing the following methods, either 
separately or two or more together, accord¬ 
ing to the results of experiments on the rates, 
the experience and the judgment of the 
workman: 

1. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance 
pivots so as to increase their radii of friction ; 
when the watch is lying flat the friction will 
thus become greater. 

2. Let the thickness of the jewel holes be 
no more than is absolutely necessary. It is 
sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the 
jewel hole so as to reduce the surface on 
which friction occurs ; but this does not quite 
meet the case, since an appreciable column 
of oil is maintained against the pivot. 

3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of 
course changing the jewel holes. The resist¬ 


ance due to friction, when the watch is ver¬ 
tical, increases rapidly with any increase in 
the diameters of pivots. 

4. Let the hairspring be accurately cen¬ 
tered, or it must usually be so placed that 
the lateral pull tends to lift the balance when 
the watch is hanging vertical. In this and the 
next succeeding case it would sometimes be 
advantageous to be able to change the point 
at which it is fixed, but this is seldom possible. 

5. Replace the hairspring by one that is 
longer or shorter, but of the same strength; 
this is with a view to increase or diminish 
the lateral pressure in accordance with the 
explanation given in the last paragraph. 

6. Set the escapement so that the strongest 
impulse corresponds with the greatest resist¬ 
ance of the balance. 

7. Replace the balance. A balance that 
is much too heavy renders the timing for 
positions impossible. 

8. Lastly, when these methods are inap¬ 
plicable or insufficient there only remains the 
very common practice of throwing the bal¬ 
ance out of poise. 


THE BALANCE. 

T HE size and weight of a balance are im¬ 
portant factors in the time-keeping qual¬ 
ities of a watch, although the dimensions of a 
balance are not criteria of the time in which 
the balance will vibrate. The balance is to 
a pocket timepiece what the pendulum is to 
the clock; although there are two essential 
points of difference. The time of vibration 
of a pendulum is unaffected by its mass, be¬ 
cause every increase in that direction carries 
with it a proportional influence of gravity; 
but if we add to the mass of the balance we 
add nothing to the strength of the hairspring, 
but add to its load, and therefore the vibra¬ 
tions become slower. Again, a pendulum 
of a given length, as long as it is kept at the 
same distance from the earth’s center, will 
vibrate in the same time because the gravity 
is always the same; but the irregularity in 
the force of the hairspring produces a like 
result in the vibration of the balance. Britten 
says there are three factors upon which the 
time of the vibration of the balance depends: 

1. The weight, or rather the mass, of the 
balance.* 

* The mass of a body is the amount of matter con¬ 
tained in that body, and is the same irrespective of 
the distance of the body from the center of the earth. 
But its weight, which is mass x gravity, varies in 
different latitudes. 



4 6 


THE BALANCE. 


2. The distance of its center of gyration 
from the center of motion, or to speak 
roughly, the diameter of the balance. From 
these two factors the moment of inertia may 
be deducted. 

3. The strength of the hairspring, or, more 
strictly, its power to resist change of form. 

Balances are of two kinds, known as plain 
or uncut, and cut or compensation. The 
plain balance is only used in this country on 
the very cheapest variety of movements. 
The compensation balance is used on the 
better grade of watches. The plain balance 
is usually made of brass or steel, while the 
compensation balance is made of steel and 
brass combined. Some English makers use 
gold for plain balances, it being denser than 
steel and not liable to rust or become mag¬ 
netized. The process of compensation bal¬ 
ance making, as carried on in our American 
factories, is as follows: A steel disc, one- 
eighth of an inch thick and five-eighths of 
an inch in diameter, is first punched from a 
sheet of metal. It is then centered and 
drilled partially through, the indentation 
serving as a guide in the operations to follow. 
A capsule of pure copper three-fourths of an 
inch in diameter is then made, and in the 
center of this capsule the steel disc is lightly 
secured. A ring of brass one-sixteenth of 
an inch in thickness is then made and placed 
between the copper capsule and the blank, 
and the whole is fused together. It is then 
faced upon both sides. It is then placed in 
a lathe and cut away in the center until a 
ring is formed of steel, which is lined or 
framed with brass. It then goes into the 
press, where two crescents are cut from it, 
leaving only the inner lining of the ring and 
the cross-bar of steel. The burr is then re¬ 
moved and the balance is ready to be drilled 
and tapped for the balance screws. This 
method of making balances is known as the 
“capsule method.” 

THE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF 
BALANCES. 

The American Waltham Watch Co. use a 
simple little contrivance for indicating the 
expansion and contraction of* balances. It 
is composed of a steel disc, on one side of 
which a scale is etched and opposite the 
scale a hole is drilled and tapped to receive 
the screw that holds the balance. One of 
the screws of the balance to be tested is re¬ 
moved and the indicating needle is screwed 
in its place. The steel disc is held by means 


of a pair of sliding tongs over an alcohol 
lamp, or can be heated in any other way and 
the expansion will be indicated by the move¬ 
ment of the needle on the scale. With an 
increase of temperature the rim is bent in¬ 
ward, thus reducing the size of the balance. 
This is owing to the fact that brass expands 
more than steel, and in endeavoring to ex¬ 
pand it bends the rim inward. The action 
is, of course, reversed by lowering the tem¬ 
perature below normal. Some adjusters spin 
a balance close to the flame of a lamp before 
using in order to subject it to a higher tem¬ 
perature than it is likely to meet in use. 
The balance is then placed upon a cold iron 
plate, and afterward tested for poise. The 
balance is then trued if found necessary, and 
the operation is repeated until it is found to 
be in poise after heating. Britten says that 
it has been demonstrated that the loss in 
heat from the weakening of the hairspring 
is uniformly in proportion to the increase of 
temperature. The compensation balance, 
however, fails to meet the temperature error 
exactly, the rims expand a little too much 
with decrease of temperature, and with in¬ 
crease of temperature the contraction of the 
rims is insufficient, consequently a watch or 
chronometer can be correctly adjusted for 
temperature at two points only. Watches 
are usually adjusted at about 50 0 and 85°. 
In this range there would be what is called 
a middle temperature error of about two 
seconds in twenty-four hours with a steel 
balance spring. The amount of the middle 
temperature error cannot be absolutely pred¬ 
icated, for in low temperatures, when the 
balance is larger in diameter, the arc of 
vibration is less than in high temperatures 
when the balance is smaller, and conse¬ 
quently its time of vibration is affected by 
the isochronism or otherwise of the hair¬ 
spring. Advantage is sometimes taken of 
this circumstance to lessen the middle tem¬ 
perature error by leaving the piece fast in 
the short arcs. To avoid middle temperature 
error in marine chronometers, various forms 
of compensation balances have been devised, 
and numberless additions or auxiliaries have 
been attached to the ordinary form of bal¬ 
ance for the same purpose. Poole’s auxiliary, 
and Molyneaux’s, may be taken to represent 
the two principles on which most auxiliaries 
are constructed. Poole’s consists of a piece 
of brass attached to the fixed ends of the rim 
and carrying a regulating screw, the point 
of which checks the outward movement of 


THE BALANCE. 


47 


the rim in low temperatures. Molyneaux’s 
is attached to each end of the arm by a 
spring, the free ends of the rim acting on it 
in high temperatures only. It illustrates this 
auxiliary when the temperature has been 
raised, its free ends to which the adjusting 
screws are attached, having approached 
nearer the center of the balance, carrying 
with them the free ends of the auxiliary, so 
that the small projection no longer comes in 
contact with the short end of the balance 
rim, as it would in a temperature of 55 0 . 
This auxiliary is made of steel. 

SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF BALANCES. 

The size and weight of the balance are 
two very important elements in the timing 
of a watch, and especially in adjusting to 
positions. The rules governing the sizes 
and weights of balances are of a complex 
nature, and though positive are difficult of 
application on account of the impracticability 
of determining the value of the elements on 
which we have to base our calculations. 
These elements are the mainspring or motive 
power, the hairspring representing the force 
of gravity on the pendulum, momentum and 
friction. The relation of the motive power 
or the mainspring to the subject under dis¬ 
cussion lies first in the necessary proportion 
between it and the amount of tension of the 
spring to be overcome, according to the ex¬ 
tent and number of vibrations aimed at; 
and, second, to that of friction affecting the 
motion of the balance and incidental to it. 
In an 18,000 train the mainspring has'to 
overcome resistance of the hairspring for 
432,000 vibrations daily. The hairspring 
having its force established by the relative 
force of the motive power circumscribes the 
proportions of the mass called balance and 
is so co-agent for overcoming friction. 

Momentum overcomes some of the elastic 
force of the spring and friction. It is the 
force of a body in motion, and is equal to 
the weight of the body multiplied by its 
velocity. Velocity in a balance is repre¬ 
sented by its circumference, a given point in 
which travels a given distance in a given time. 
Weight is that contained in its rim. A bal¬ 
ance is said to have more or less momentum 
in proportion, as it retains force imparted to 
it by impulsion. If a watch has a balance 
with which it has been brought to time, and 
this is changed to one-half the size, it re¬ 
quires to be four times as heavy, because its 
weight is then only half the distance from 


the center, and any given point in its cir¬ 
cumference has only half the distance to 
travel. On the other hand, a balance twice 
the size, would have one-fourth the weight. 
In the first case the balance would have 
twice as much momentum as the original 
one, because if we multiply the weight by 
the velocity we have a product twice as 
great. In the latter case a like operation 
would give a product half as great as in the 
original balance. 

It follows that the smaller and heavier a 
balance the more momentum, and vice versd 
the less momentum it has, always on condi¬ 
tion that the hairspring controls both equally. 
Friction, affecting the vibration of the bal¬ 
ance, is that of the pivots on which it moves 
and that of the escapement. It is in pro¬ 
portion to the force with which two surfaces 
are pressed together and their area. In a 
balance, weight is synonymous with pressure 
area, and is represented by the size of its 
pivots and the thickness of the pivot holes. 
The first, pivot friction, is continuous and 
incidental, and is overcome by combined 
forces, the motive power, the elasticity of 
the hairspring, and the momentum of the 
balance. The latter, or escapement friction, 
is intermitting, and is overcome by contend¬ 
ing forces, the hairspring and the momentum 
of the balance on one side and the motive 
power on the other. 

Having it in our pbwer, as shown above, 
to obtain the desired momentum of the bal¬ 
ance by differing relative pressure and 
diameter, we can regulate pivot friction 
within certain limits and distribute the labor 
of overcoming it, among the co-operative 
forces, in such a manner that the proportions 
of such distributions shall not be disturbed 
during their (forces) increase or decrease. 
Incidental pivot friction is that caused by 
the contact of the balance with the escape¬ 
ment. Escapement friction is that caused 
by the unlocking on the impulse. The first 
causes retardation, the latter acceleration in 
the motion of the balance, regardless of 
isochronism. It is easy to comprehend that 
a heavy balance would, by its greater mo¬ 
mentum, unlock the escapement with less 
retardation than a light one; but, on the 
other hand, the acceleration by the impulse 
would be less also; and with a varying 
motive power a disturbing element would be 
introduced by a change in the relative pro¬ 
portions of these forces, the momentum of 
the balance decreasing or increasing faster 


4 8 


TO PUT IN A HAIRSPRING. 


than the motive power, constituting as it 
does relatively a more variable force. In 
argument the reverse of this might be ad¬ 
vanced in regard to a balance which is too 
light. Without, however, entering further 
into the subject it is plain how the rate of a 
watch under such conditions might be af¬ 
fected after being apparently adjusted in 
stationary positions by being used on a loco¬ 
motive or under conditions where external 
disturbances should lessen the extent of 
vibration, and making the contact between 
the balance and the escapement of less dura¬ 
tion. 

The almost universal abandonment of 
watches with uniform motive power and the 
introduction of stem-winders with going bar¬ 
rels invests the subject with special interest; 
and as stated in the beginning, applying rules 
for defining these desirable proportions being 
impracticable, the only solution of the prob¬ 
lem which remains to us is the study by ob¬ 
servation of certain symptoms which do exist 
to determine that which by other means 
cannot be done. During the progress of 
horology similar difficulties had to be met in 
every kind of watch which happened to be 
in use. The old verge watch had its bal¬ 
ance proportioned thus that it could lie 
inside in the mainspring barrel, and the 
watch, when set going without a balance 
spring, would indicate by the hand on the 
dial a progress of twenty-seven and one-half 
minutes during one hour running. It was said 
that under these circumstances it would be 
least affected by inequalities of the motive 
power, and the verge would not be cut by 
the escape wheel. The balance in the cyl¬ 
inder watch was to be sized according to the 
proportion of the train, each successive wheel 
to be one-half smaller than the preceding 
one and the balance to be twice the size of 
the escape wheel, the weight to be deter¬ 
mined by the equal running of the watch 
during all the changes of an unequal motive 
power. The cutting of the steel pallets in 
duplex watches or chronometers is caused 
more by too heavy balances than by any 
other defect in their parts. It might be well 
to note the following, which is very impor¬ 
tant and too often neglected, and that is the 
arrangement of the mainspring in the barrel 
so as to avoid coil friction, and the smallest 
advantage of the old fusee watch was not 
the facility of obtaining five turns of the 
fusee to three or three and one-half of the 
mainspring, but being enabled thereby to 


arrange the latter around a. small arbor in 
such a manner that the coils never touched, 
insuring a smooth motive power and lessen¬ 
ing the chances of breakage beyond estima¬ 
tion. _ 

TO PUT IN A HAIRSPRING. 

HAVE before me an old anchor watch, 
in which I am about to put a new spring. 
The spring is soft. The watch has been a 
remarkable close time-keeper for over thirty 
years. The movement is very large and re¬ 
quires a large spring in the round. On the 
dial is marked “ Railroad Time-keeper ” in 
red letters in a circle. In my stock of springs 
I have none large enough in the round. I 
select one for strength, which is very closely 
coiled. To get the desired size in the round, 
I lay it on a flat barrel head and hold over 
the spirit lamp until it uncoils to the desired 
size in the round. I test the hole in the 
collet with broach. If not parallel with bal¬ 
ance I broach it to bring it parallel. I put 
the outer end in the collet and fit a pin with 
flat side next the spring; press it in tightly 
and mark the ends carefully and lay it away 
for future use, and use it for permanent fas¬ 
tening. I now test the spring in the usual 
way by counting the train or by setting the 
second hand at sixty and moving the lever 
back and forward, counting the beats for 
fifteen or thirty seconds, which multiplied by 
two or four gives the number of beats in one 
minute. I fit the spring at the collet, with 
coiling tweezers, with proper curve, and fit 
around the collet at the proper distance, so 
as not to come in contact with the collet in 
vibrating, leaving about the same space as 
between the coils. For trial, I fasten the 
spring in the collet with pegwood and take 
hold of the outer end of spring with a pair 
of tweezers and vibrate the balance on a flat 
glass for fifteen or thirty seconds. If too 
strong move further out; if slow move back 
until I get the desired number of beats. At 
this point I mark the spring with a little red- 
stuff (English, you know). I test the hole 
in stud to find if parallel; if not, I broach it 
to bring it right. I now fasten spring in 
stud, leaving the mark a little outside be¬ 
tween curb pins and stud. I lay my spring 
on the cock with spring between pins. I 
put pegwood down though the collet point 
in jewel hole and find if the spring crowds 
at any point; if so, it must be connected by 
getting the coils equal all around. I now 
put the permanent pin in place and manipu- 



TO FIT THE CENTER BUSH. 


49 


late the spring at the collet to get it right in 
the flat. I get the spring to have the same 
play between the pins when turned fast or 
slow. I put the balance with spring in the 
calipers and ascertain whether there is any 
wabbling; if so, it must be corrected. I 
now set the ruby pin in direct line with bal¬ 
ance and pallet staff and mark on balance 
directly opposite the stud hole and bring the 
stud to that point and the watch will be in 
perfect beat. The balance must be carefully 
poised. Where there are no screws, it must 
be done by adding or taking from the rim. 
Balances with screws can be poised by using 
washer if light, or reducing the weight by 
turning the screws out if too heavy. About 
two years ago I cleaned an American full- 
plate watch. In a few weeks the watch was 
brought back with the inside coil over the 
curb pin. The watch was carried by an 
engineer. The jumping of the engine made 
the spring overlap. It set me to reflecting. 
I came to the conclusion that by shortening 
the pins so that the spring working at the 
ends of the pins and beveling the outside pin 
and polishing it smooth, if it did occur it 
would slip back again, which proved to be 
correct, as it has not occurred since. The 
new spring has to be tested for isochronism. 
A spring is isochronal when it causes any 
point in the balance rim to pass through 
equal and unequal spaces in equal time. 
The moment a balance receives an impulse, 
that moment does it begin to wind up the 
hairspring, and continues to wind it until it 
reaches the extreme point of its tension. 
But the first ten degrees of the return motion 
of the balance should be neither quicker nor 
slower than the last ten, and would not be if 
the spring were isochronal. By making the 
spring isochronous the watch is made to 
maintain the same rate in the long as in the 
short motions of the balance. Rate the 
watch (fully wound) for six hours in the 
hanging position, then rate it the same length 
of time in a lying position. Wind it full for 
both trials. Should it go slower in the lying 
than in the hanging position it shows that 
the spring is too long for its strength, and 
must be taken up. When the watch is made 
to keep the same rate in both positions the 
spring is isochronous. The principle of 
isochronism consists in the length of the 
spring being in exact proportion to its 
strength, consequently if a spring be too 
strong for its length there is no point that is 
isochronous, but if the spring be sufficiently 


long for its strength the isochronal point 
may be found. I do not advise the use of 
soft springs. In American watches I use 
tempered springs in all cases. I do use soft 
springs in lower grades, where they have run 
close to time with soft springs. In my ex¬ 
perience I have found that soft springs for 
low-grade watches are not affected by ex¬ 
treme heat and cold to the same extent as 
hard springs. In conclusion, if there are 
any points in the above that will be appre¬ 
ciated by the craft, let them “ make a note 
of it,” as Captain Cuttle says. 


TO FIT THE CENTER BUSH. 

IN the two plates together and put them 
in universal face plate or head, centering 
by the center hole in top plate, and turn the 
old bush out and traces of soft solder off the 
bottom plate. Turn up a new bush, and 
leave it as long as possible, so as to better 
support the pivot, and retain the oil. 

Saunier says, “ There is no advantage to 
be gained by diminishing the extent of the 
surfaces of contact in depths, in liftings and 
even in rests of escapements, as is too often 
done under the impression that friction is 
thereby reduced. Since the same blow or 
pressure is withstood by a smaller number of 
elements, it will act with a greater force on 
them, and will distort the surface more rap¬ 
idly ; the accuracy of their forms will thus be 
destroyed in a less time. Also when the 
bearing surfaces are not of sufficient extent, 
any excess of pressure expels the oil, causing 
a destruction of the surfaces and increased 
friction.” Therefore it is plain to be seen 
what a bad effect a thin bush will occa¬ 
sion. 

A bush should support the pivot for three- 
fourths of its length, and also have a suffi¬ 
ciently deep oil sink to retain enough oil to 
keep the pivot moist for a year or a year 
and a half. Bushes should always be fitted 
in from the side the shoulder of pivot rests 
against, and the other end should be well 
undercut and turned to a knife edge that 
will just project through the plate, and then 
one or two taps will be sufficient to rivet it 
firmly. The center wheel should have very 
little end-shake, as it runs so close to both 
the 3d wheel and great wheel and barrel, 
and the end-shake should always be tested 
with the plates pinned together with all the 
pins. 




5° 


TO CLEANSE POLISHING LEATHERS. 


FITTING THE RUBY PIN. 

BRASS pin having been inserted in table 
roller, it will be necessary to replace it 
with a jewel, and by that I don’t mean the 
glass “ ruby pins ” to be bought for about 
twenty-five cents a gross, but the genuine 
garnet and ruby pins that cost about one 
dollar a gross ; they are in all certainty suffi¬ 
ciently low-priced, and any watch that is 
worth having a ruby pin fitted at all is worth 
having one costing a cent, notwithstanding 
which, we frequently find glass, steel, brass 
and even copper ones inserted. It is a dis¬ 
grace that such work should be done, and 
as it most certainly is done, it is to be hoped 
that any who have been in the habit of so 
doing, either from the want of proper instruc¬ 
tion or otherwise, will turn over a new leaf 
and in future use proper materials in all cases. 

Knock out the brass pin, pick out a jewel 
that fits the slot in the fork with very slight 
shake, the less shake the better, freedom be¬ 
ing insured. Sometimes ruby pins are fitted 
that do not fill more than half the slot, and 
as a consequence, about half the impulse 
that would be communicated to the balance 
by the fork if the ruby pin fitted the slot, is 
lost, and a small, struggling motion is the 
result. Insert the jewel in the roller and set 
it with shellac, using one of the several de¬ 
signs of ruby pin setters in the market. 
After the pin is firmly and correctly set, fit 
the roller on the balance staff and test the 
action of ruby pin and fork in the depthing 
tool to see that the pin enters the slot, and 
does not enter so deeply as to touch against 
the back of it. _ 

TO FIT THE DIAL FEET. 

RIND away the enamel where the feet 
are broken off with emery lap, and turn 
up two new feet, shaping them the same as 
a plate screw, the part corresponding to the 
head being large enough to get a strong job 
when soft soldered to the copper plate of 
dial, solder them on so that when fitted on 
plate the center of seconds hole will corre¬ 
spond with the hole in fourth or second wheel 
jewel, mark the points to drill for the dial 
pins so that when the pins are inserted they 
will touch the plate and thus keep the dial 
from rattling. _ 

TO FIT NEW BANKING PINS. 

NOCK out the old pins and insert 
Waltham banking studs, if the old bank¬ 
ing-pin holes are too far apart. By fitting 


Waltham banking studs you can turn the 
pins around to the proper position at will. 
Turn them so that at all points the shake 
between the fork and pins at the one end 
and guard pins and roller at the other will 
be the same, and reduce the shake as much 
as possible. When the pins are adjusted to 
suit the fork and roller, put the movement 
together and see that the banking pins are 
sufficiently far apart to allow the scape wheel 
to escape. Should the wheel escape on one 
side and not on the other, the pin binding 
the pallets and fork together will have to be 
knocked out and the pallets moved suffi¬ 
ciently to allow the scape wheel teeth to 
escape on the other side. If they require to 
be moved very slightly, the pallets and fork 
can be firmly held in hand vise and the holes 
broached out in line with each other, or else 
the hole in fork must be filled up and a new 
one drilled. _ 

TO REPAIR CENTER PIVOT. 

HE pivot, if cut so that it is smaller 
than the cannon arbor, or part the 
cannon fits on, will have to have a pipe fit¬ 
ted. Chuck the center pinion in a lathe, 
and turn what remains of the pivot flush with 
the cannon arbor, take a piece of Stubb’s 
wire of requisite thickness, and drill it so 
that it will fit down over arbor snugly, turn 
the ends flat and square, leaving it of suffi¬ 
cient length so that the cannon pinion will 
rest against it and be clear of scraping against 
the plate, as would be the case if cut off too 
short, fit it in position, using a speck of soft 
solder if necessary, in which case do it care¬ 
fully and without discoloring the rest < 5 f the 
pinion, and then boil out in alcohol to de¬ 
stroy the bad effect of the soldering acid (I 
wish it understood right here that I am no 
advocate of soft solder in any shape or form, 
except when it is absolutely necessary to use 
it, and occasionally it is, but even then it 
may be done so that it is not noticeable). 
Then turn the pipe true and to the desired 
size, and grind and polish with oil-stone dust 
and crocus on bell-metal slip. 


TO CLEANSE POLISHING LEATHERS. 

CORRESPONDENT complains that 
his polishing leathers have shrunk to¬ 
gether after washing them, as directed by 
us. This can only have been caused by the 
use of very hot water, which should hardly 
be lukewarm. Wash your leathers with 











THE MARINE CHRONOMETER. 


5 1 


ordinary soap which contains much potash, 
and renew the water as often as necessary, 
until perfectly clean. Then beat soap to 
froth, and meanwhile mix a little olive oil, 
using barely a tablespoonful per leather. 
Next rinse the leather well, and wring dry, 
stretch it to all sides, and for the purpose of 
thoroughly drying, hang it in a place free 
from dust, but not near a stove. The oil is 
for the purpose of making the leather soft 
and supple, and no fears need be entertained 
that the oil will make it smeary. The leath¬ 
ers can also be washed in benzine; they 
must then be wrung out in a soft linen rag 
or handkerchief, and rubbed with it until 
thoroughly dry, otherwise they would shrink 
together and become hard. 


THE MARINE CHRONOMETER. 

ROBABLY no piece of human mech¬ 
anism represents more brain labor, or 
a greater amount of unyielding endeavor, 
to overcome obstacles than we find embodied 
in a first-class marine chronometer. And 
yet the instrument is far from the state of 
perfection which “ theory ” would promise. 
We are beset with difficulties on every hand, 
which, although purely mechanical, are still 
serious enough to be perplexing. These 
mechanical imperfections beset us the instant 
we enter the workshop and seek to realize 
our theories; and these imperfections will 
impede our operations, and stand a barrier 
to our progress to perfection forever; yet 
patience and skill will remedy many, and 
modify other of those difficulties, until, like 
the problem of squaring the circle, although 
perfection can never be reached, still, an 
approximation to it can be attained, which 
will leave little to be desired. I do not pro¬ 
pose to follow the development of the instru¬ 
ment up to its present state of perfection 
through all its modifications, but rather to 
call notice to inherent faults which exist and 
admit of remedy to a certain extent. First 
and foremost among the imperfections stands 
compensation for heat and cold, as counter¬ 
acted by the composite curb, or, as it is 
usually called, the chronometer balance. It 
is unnecessary to describe this appliance to 
readers of The Circular, as it is supposed to 
be thoroughly understood in all its actions by 
them from articles hitherto published in its 
columns. But certain features exist in it not 
generally known and appreciated—first, its 
imperfections in extreme temperatures; sev¬ 


eral devices exist to remedy this defect to a 
limited extent; second, its elasticity begets the 
trouble to a great extent of “ shop rate,” and 
“ sea rate ” ; third, its susceptibility to cen¬ 
trifugal action. I will waive the first count 
of the indictment and proceed to the second 
and third, which, in reality, grow out of the 
same cause, i.e., the springy nature of the 
compound curbs or segments of the balance 
rim. It is a well-known feature of a curved 
spring that it is more easily bent outward 
than inward, or, in other words, it requires 
less force to straighten a curved spring than 
it does to increase the curve; hence, any 
motion or disturbing influence, like the sway 
of a vessel, will tell in the line of least resist¬ 
ance ; this proposition is proved by the fact 
that in nine cases out of ten the “ sea rate ” 
of a chronometer is slower than the “ shop 
rate.” The exceptions to this rule is with 
inferior chronometers having unsteady rates. 
In regard to the effects of centrifugal action, 
it is more serious than at first would seem 
probable. It is impossible to construct a 
balance in which both segments are exactly 
alike in elasticity or resilient power; but we 
will suppose we can seize and comprehend 
the exact conditions of a balance just at the 
instant it pauses on a return vibration; we 
will conceive it to be in a perfect condition 
of repose in all its particles—a condition 
we will see does not and cannot exist with 
this form of balance—the tension of the bal¬ 
ance (pendulum) spring causes the return 
vibration to set in, our segment with its 
adjustable weight yields to the centrifugal 
action first, the center of gravity (poise) is 
disturbed, and the pivots thrown to one side 
of the hole jewels ; the opposite segment and 
its weight follows, and if we could see the 
pivots in such a way as to take cognizance 
of their action, we would find them taking 
advantage of the side-shake in the jewel 
holes at the rate of several shakes a second ; 
I say several, for it is much to be doubted 
if those shakes are a constant number, and 
if not constant they must in some degree 
affect the performance of the instrument. 
It is a well-known test with old and experi¬ 
enced adjusters, that a chronometer must, 
in its “ tick,” give out a pure musical tone; 
or in other words, the vibrations in its com¬ 
ponent parts must be synchronous—in har¬ 
mony. It is a well-known fact that if two 
springs whose vibrations represent certain 
musical tones, if not exactly harmonious, will 
compromise if near each other, and produce 




5 2 


TO HARDEN PINIONS. 


a tone intermediate to both. So probably, 
to a certain extent, a compromise takes 
place in the balance of a chronometer, and 
a synchronous harmony is established ; but, 
on the other hand, a discord can also set in, 
which would tell irregularly on the chro¬ 
nometer’s rate. It must be evident to all 
minds which give the problem careful atten¬ 
tion, that centrifugal action on the segments 
must beget a train of unequal resistances, 
which tell unequally on the balance and all 
its belongings. I wish the reader to under¬ 
stand that I have no axe to grind, nor do I 
propose any better form of balance, but I 
wish to bring the facts to the attention of 
the thinking portion of our expert mechanics, 
and see if there is no better way to counter¬ 
act the effects of heat and cold on movable 
time-keepers. But I would beg to say that, 
practically, up to the present time, the com¬ 
pound curved segments (in some form) give 
the best results. A few suggestions may not 
be displaced—not my own, understand, but 
such as have been thrown out during the 
development of the expansion balance as it 
now exists. What is required in a balance 
for correcting heat and cold effects are: 
perfect and equitable compensation through 
all ranges of exposure; rigidity of form ex¬ 
cept by caloric effects. To produce these 
results various devices have been offered; 
many with merit, some with varied points of 
excellence, which are worthy of considera¬ 
tion. The prominent ones of interest are 
based on two principles: first, keeping the 
timepiece exposed to an exalted temperature 
above anything it would be exposed to, and 
maintaining this temperature to constantly 
exactly the same degree ; second, a mechan¬ 
ical arrangement of levers operated some¬ 
thing similar to a gridiron pendulum. The 
problem is open, and will yet be solved by 
the ingenuity of some person, who will con¬ 
fer a great favor on humanity, and if prop¬ 
erly managed, result in a financial return to 
the inventor. I am aware that I am vent¬ 
uring on a ground which has been carefully 
gone over by deep thinkers and skillful men 
—yet, twenty years ago, if a man had fore¬ 
told the success of breech-loading guns, the 
very men who were supposed to know the 
most about such things would have treated 
the suggestion with contempt—but one small 
idea established or made practicable breech¬ 
loading guns, and this was the metallic car¬ 
tridge. Now, in our case, may not some 
idea be thrown up by discussing the subject, 


which will happily solve the question ? A 
balance free from dilation by centrifugal 
force would be much easier to match with 
an isochronal spring. There is another 
point deserving of consideration, which is, a 
compound segment is always liable to de¬ 
terioration, like a hairspring or mainspring, 
but even more rapidly; there is a constant 
antagonism between the two metals which 
can never be reconciled. I think that my 
experience will agree with others when I say 
that chronometer balances will show some 
queer freaks. A chronometer which has 
been under one’s care for years, and showing 
a marvelous fine rate, will all at once fly off 
on a tangent (“ kick up ” is a better phrase), 
and vary more in one day than it previously 
did in a month. Now, generally, the trouble 
lies in the hairspring, but sometimes a new 
balance is required—some latent defect has 
existed in the balance, and all at once it is 
developed in full force. 


TO POLISH STEEL. 

I F the steel is of moderately good tem¬ 
per, use a zinc polisher with diaman- 
tine; for soft steel a tin polisher is better. 
The diamantine should be mixed on glass, 
with very little watch oil. Diamantine 
mixed with ordinary oil becomes gummy, and 
is quite unfit for use in a day or two, and if 
brought into contact with metal in mixing, 
turns black. 


TO HARDEN PINIONS. 

VERY watchmaker knows that heated 
steel dipped into water becomes hard. 
When heating the steel, care must be taken 
not to let the steel burn, but simply bring it 
to a red heat. For hardening pinions or 
other large steel objects, do as follows, to 
prevent the ruinous warping: Make a box of 
sheet iron with a well-fitting cover upon it, 
and heat it to a white heat before using. 
Then fill it one-half with bone black, place 
the piece of steel into it, fill it entirely with 
bone black, put the lid on, and secure the 
box with binding wire. Then put the box 
into a charcoal fire until white hot, withdraw 
and immerse it in cold water, leaving it im¬ 
mersed until cold ; the color of the steel will 
be gray, it has no scale, and is not warped. 
Steel hardened in this manner must not be 
annealed quite as much as is done with 
other—instead of dark blue, make it dark 
yellow. 





TO RENEW OLD FILES. 


53 


FLAT POLISH. 

O polish such parts as rollers and col¬ 
lets, first get a flat surface, by rubbing 
with fine emery on a glass plate or a bell- 
metal block, and afterward finish off on a 
zinc block with diamantine; but for levers, 
you must use a long, flat bell-metal or zinc 
polisher, and press the lever into a piece of 
soft wood (willow is the best) in the vise, 
moving the polisher instead of the work. 
For large articles, such as indexes or repeater 
racks, which are not solid and spring, it will 
be found best to wax them on to a small 
brass block and polish them underhand, in 
the same manner as rollers. 


TO TEMPER GRAVERS. 

RAVERS and other instruments larger 
than drills may be tempered in quick¬ 
silver, or you may take lead instead of quick¬ 
silver. Cut down into the lead, say half an 
inch, then, having heated your instrument to 
a bright cherry-red, press it firmly into the cut. 
The lead will melt around it, and an excel¬ 
lent temper will be imparted. 


TO DRAW TEMPER. 

HE following method is said to be ex¬ 
cellent for drawing the temper from 
delicate steel pieces, without springing them. 
Place the article from which you desire to 
draw the temper into a common clock key. 
File around it with brass or iron filings, and 
then plug up the hole with a steel, iron, or 
brass plug made to fit closely. Take the 
handle of the key with your pliers, and hold 
its pipe into the blaze of a lamp till nearly 
hot, then let it cool gradually. When suf¬ 
ficiently cold to handle, remove the plug, 
and you will find the article with its temper 
fully drawn, but in all other respects as it 
was before. You will understand the reason 
for having the article thus plugged up while 
passing through the heating and cooling 
process, when you know that springing 
always results from the action of changeable 
currents of atmosphere. The temper may 
be drawn from cylinders, staffs, pinions, or 
any other delicate pieces by this mode with 
perfect safety. _ 

TO STRAIGHTEN SCAPE WHEEL. 

HE Traite de /’Horlogerie Modcrtie con¬ 
tains a method of truing a cylinder 
escape wheel that has been cockled in the 


hardening; the following is a modification 
of the process there described: In the mid¬ 
dle of a square plate that is moderately 
thick, fit a strong screw with a large and 
long 'head; this screw must pass freely 
through a disc that is perfectly flat and fits 
easily into the upper side of the escape 
wheel. Now fix the plate between the jaws 
of a bench vise, and placing the wheel be¬ 
tween this plate and the disc with a mod¬ 
erate pressure applied to the screw, hold a 
lamp to the under side, gradually tightening 
the screw as the steel changes color, so as 
to obtain a maximum pressure when a blue 
temper is reached. Leave the whole to cool 
in position. 


FINE LUBRICATING OIL. 

Y putting pure olive oil into a clear 
glass bottle with a few strips or pieces 
of sheet lead, and exposing to the sun for 
two or three weeks, an exceedingly fine 
lubricating oil may be obtained that will not 
gum or corrode. Only that part should be 
poured off which is perfectly clear. 


TO RENEW OLD FILES. 

HE process of cleaning and renewing 
old files will be found useful, whenever 
there is a lot of apparently worthless files 
lying around the shop. Very often they do 
not need recutting, but are merely clogged 
up with dirt and grease and are of little 
service. To restore them, take the following 
advice of a correspondent: Some time ago 
I gathered together a lot of old worn-out 
files, both large and small, coarse and fine, 
and boiled them for half an hour in saleratus 
water (4 oz. saleratus to 1 quart water). I 
then washed them in clean water and placed 
them in a solution of sulphuric acid and 
water (4 oz. of sulphuric acid to 1 quart 
water). I removed the smaller and finer 
files at the end of forty-five minutes, but the 
larger and coarser I let remain for two or 
three hours, looking at them occasionally to 
see that they didn’t cut too much. I then 
washed them thoroughly with a stiff brush 
and plenty of clean water, then dried and 
oiled them a little to prevent their rusting. 
I have used them for several months and 
think they cut as well as new files, and have 
lasted almost quite as long. 














54 


TO EASE AN INDEX. 


BROKEN SCREWS. 

HAVE two methods for taking broken 
plate screws out of American watches: 
i. When it can be done, I turn them out 
with the sharp point of a graver. When 
this cannot be done, with a thin screw file I 
file into the end of the post until the broken 
screw is reached, and a slot made in it by 
which it can be easily raised. Some may 
be disposed to call it botch-work, but I can¬ 
not see that it injures the post, and when 
the upper plate is on and the screw in, the 
place cannot be seen. 


TO APPLY WATCH OIL. 

ATCH oil should be conveyed to 
the watch only with an absolutely 
clean medium, and steel is to be preferred 
by all odds. Many use brass, but this can¬ 
not be kept as clean, nor is it as easily 
cleaned as steel, and we would recommend 
to our fellow-workmen to use steel exclu¬ 
sively. _ 

TO FASTEN SPRING ON COLLET. 

HEN the spring is firmly fastened 
on the collet, the first turn cannot be 
too close to it, but it must not touch it, and 
must form a true or slightly expanding circle 
with it. It must then be placed in the turns, 
or an arbor, and revolved with the bow, and 
looked at with the glass to see that the spring 
revolves truly with the collet, and that there 
is no jumping action in it. If the eye of 
the spring is much larger than the collet, it 
will be difficult to make it revolve truly, but 
in repairing a bad spring many judicious 
touches with the tweezers may be given while 
it is on the arbor, and anything like a crank 
action of the spring and collet must be cor¬ 
rected. 


TO RESET THE RUBY PIN. 

HAVE so often seen watch repairers, 
every time they wished to tighten or 
reset a ruby pin in a lever movement, re¬ 
move the roller from the staff, heat it in the 
alcohol lamp until the shellac was softened, 
and perhaps the roller blued and disfigured, 
beside losing the entire adjustment and in¬ 
juring the time-keeping qualities of the 
watch, by replacing the roller without the 
aid of a beat block, that I offer a simple little 
device which may be useful to some of your 
readers. Take a piece of medium sized pin 


wire, about two and a half inches long; 
anneal about one-half or three-quarters of 
an inch of each end, then bend into the 
shape of a shepherd’s hook, hammering the 
open end flat, and it is ready for use. Hold¬ 
ing the balance with the roller table upper¬ 
most, now heat the hook, and place it care¬ 
fully around the staff body underneath the 
roller table. You will find it will communi¬ 
cate sufficient heat to the roller to soften the 
shellac, and no other part of the balance 
staff or spring will be sufficiently heated to 
damage them in the least, while the ruby pin 
may be readily and easily adjusted to its 
proper position. 


THE WATCH TRAIN. 

HEN examining a watch handed you 
for repairs, examine the train of wheels. 
If the scape depth, as often happens, is shal¬ 
low, as shown by much side-shake, drive the 
scape cock by pressure from behind, if free¬ 
dom allows, the second pivot hole being 
always very shallow. A pivot broach pressed 
by the finger underneath in opening the hole 
will cut away one side of the hole, into 
which a French bouchon or stopping is being 
inserted and riveted, we have a new depth 
as the result of a few minutes’ work. 


TO REDUCE DIAL. 

ESTING the dial in an inclined po¬ 
sition against a block, file its edge 
with a smooth or half smooth file, which 
must only be allowed while advancing, and 
is, at the same time, displayed sideways and 
turned so as to follow the contour of the 
dial. The file should be dipped occasion¬ 
ally in turpentine, and when sufficient enamel 
has been removed, pass a new emery stick 
over it to remove the file marks. 


TO EASE AN INDEX. 

I T is a common but bad practice among 
watchmakers, says Saunier, to scrape the 
inside of the ring of the index or cut it 
through. A better method is as follows: 
Resting the index on a cork, cover the in¬ 
side of its ring with oil-stone dust, and make 
the cap rotate in its seat by means of a 
pinion caliper, the two points of which are 
inserted in the screw holes. The operation 
is repeated as often as may be required. 












TO TAKE OUT TEMPER OF STAFF. 


55 


MAGNITUDE OF PALLET IMPULSE. 

HE average magnitude of pallet im¬ 
pulse angles is io°. It is a matter 
which depends greatly on the quality of the 
work. If a pallet with an impulse angle of 
7 has much side-shake on its pivots, then 
the ruby pin becomes the center of motion 
where the impulse should commence, and 
hence a greater part of the moment would 
be lost. Though a large impulse angle gives 
less moment, nevertheless it will neutralize 
the evil of badly fitting holes ; hence, pallets 
with small impulse angles should always 
have jeweled holes, and brass pallet holes 
require larger impulse angles. This appears 
so self-evident that diagrams are not neces¬ 
sary to prove it. 

TO REMOVE A BROKEN SCREW. 

CORRESPONDENT of The Jewel¬ 
ers’ Circular complains that he has 
a bad case of broken screw in a watch 
plate, and asks for information how to ex¬ 
tract it. Our columns have heretofore con¬ 
tained practical recipes, to which we refer 
him, adding another one. With a screw- 
head file cut a slit in the top of the broken 
screw deep enough for a screw-driver to 
have a firm hold. Then pressing the screw¬ 
driver firmly in the slit, turn it to the left, 
and in most cases the screw will give way. 
After turning it once or twice it is advisable 
to file off the top of the screw nearly level 
with the watch plate and recut the slit. If 
this method does not answer, place the plate 
with the top of the broken screw over one 
of the holes in the riveting stake correspond¬ 
ing to the size of the screw, and with a joint 
pusher placed on the bottom of the screw, 
give a sharp blow with a hammer or mallet, 
which generally breaks the thread and partly 
drives it through the plate, after which it can 
, be pulled out with a pair of pliers. Re-tap 
the hole and fit in a new screw. 


TO WRITE UPON STEEL. 

GOOD fluid with which to write upon 
steel is prepared by mixing one part 
of nitric acid with about one-sixth part 
of hydrochloric acid. Cleanse the part to 
be operated on with oil and cover it with a 
coating of beeswax. With a pointed tool 
write upon the wax, letting each stroke 
penetrate down to the metal; then with a 
fine brush, dipped into above said acid 


mixture, follow the strokes of the writing. 
When these strokes have been filled with this 
mixture, let the work stand for about five 
minutes, and then dip it into water to inter¬ 
rupt the further operation of the acid. 


TO SOLDER BROKEN BROACHES. 

TEEL broaches and other tools are sol¬ 
dered by cleaning well the parts broken, 
then dipping them into a solution of sulphate 
of copper, and soldering them with ordinary 
soft solder. The joint is a good one, and 
will stand ordinary hard wear. 


TRANSPARENT BLUE FOR STEEL. 

AMAR varnish, y 2 gallon; finely pul¬ 
verized Prussian blue, y 2 oz. ; mix 
thoroughly. Makes a splendid appearance. 
Excellent for bluing hands. 


HOW TO SUPPLY OIL. 

E very careful in lubricating. The 
manner of doing this is much more 
important than many imagine, and has a 
greater influence upon the duration of the 
good performance and timing. To single 
out the escapement: Many watchmakers 
put too much oil into the cylinder, under 
the impression that when the wheel passes 
through each tooth will take its required 
amount. This is a bad method, because it 
stands to reason that those teeth which pass 
through first will take so much oil, that 
instead of adhering to the lifting faces of the 
tooth where it belongs, the oil will run down 
the tooth pillars and swim upon the bottom, 
acting there as a dirt trap. It is more advis¬ 
able to place only a small quantity of oil in 
the cylinder, then pass the teeth through, 
and additionally lubricate the lifting face of 
each third or fourth tooth. 


TO TAKE OUT TEMPER OF STAFF. 

N taking the temper out of hard staffs in 
order to drill without injury to adjacent 
parts, the following method has been found 
to work very nicely: Take a small piece of 
charcoal, as large as a pea, or larger, accord¬ 
ing to size of staff; make a hole in it, into 
which the end of the staff is to be inserted; 
then holding the staff with the pliers, direct 
the flame of the lamp upon the coal until it 
is ignited, when it can be kept in a red-hot 














56 


TO SHARPEN FINE FILES. 


glow by the blowpipe alone, until all is con¬ 
sumed. This will not even blue the rest of 
the staff, and will usually take out the tem¬ 
per sufficiently to drill. If once will not do, 
it may be repeated several times till the end 
is accomplished. 

TO BROACH A HOLE VERTICALLY. 

HOLE in a plate, as, for instance, that 
in a barrel, is seldom maintained at right 
angles to the surface by young watchmakers 
when they have occasion to employ a broach. 
By adopting the following very simple 
method success may be assured: Take a 
long cork or a diameter rather less than that 
of the barrel or other object operated upon, 
and make a hole in the length of the cork 
through which the broach can be passed. 
When the cork has been turned quite true 
on its end and edge, the broach is pushed 
through and used to enlarge the hole ; by 
pressing against the back of the cork it is 
always kept against the barrel,'and the ver- 
ticality of the broach is then maintained. 


THE USE OF SHELLAC IN 
HOROLOGY. 

HELLAC, says J. Beau, in the Revue 
Chronometrique , is used in two forms, in 
rolls, and dissolved in alcohol or phenyl, as 
will be specified farther on. Solid shellac is 
suited best for fastening parts that either 
have much shake between each other or are 
badly fitted together, while the fluid is used 
for cementing closely fitted pieces; for in¬ 
stance, anchor pallets, because, owing to its 
fluid condition, it can penetrate better into 
smaller interstices. 

When shellac in rolls is used it is advisable 
to draw it out, an operation that should not 
be performed with the fingers; it is to be 
warmed over an alcohol flame, and drawn 
out with two pair of tweezers, in which 
manner it can be drawn out as thin as de¬ 
sired, at the same time protecting it against 
the perspiration of the hand. 

This drawing out is really not the best 
method, although, perhaps, the large major¬ 
ity of watchmakers employ it; the roll of 
shellac loses thereby part of its rigidity, and 
will no longer give results as perfect as those 
obtained by the following method: The 
shellac is to be heated, and a part of it is 
taken upon the point of a pegwood suffi¬ 
ciently strong to manipulate the shellac, with 


which it is placed upon the pieces to be 
cemented. 

Again, the pieces to be cemented should 
never be warmed directly, but they are to 
be placed into a chuck or other suitable 
utensil, which is heated, the shellac placed 
upon the point until it becomes soft; when 
in this condition, a small quantity is taken 
away with the pegwood; in this way, there 
will never be any danger of overheating. 

Shellac dissolved in alcohol would comply 
with all the demands of horology, if the 
solutions were not open to the following 
objections : If a drop of the solution is only 
for a few seconds exposed to the air, a pelli¬ 
cle, analogous to boiling milk, will form on 
its surface and prevent the spreading of the 
drop, so that it can enter into the interstices, 
especially if very small, as in the case of 
pallets. For this reason, I preferably have 
used for some time the solution effected in 
phenyl. Phenyl, also called phenylic alco¬ 
hol, has properties placing it between alcohol 
and acid; it exerts no injurious effect upon 
the metals used in horology, and, therefore, 
no objections to its employment exist. The 
only disagreeable characteristic is, that it 
etches the skin when coming in contact with 
it. The watchmaker may therefore use it to 
advantage, guarding, of course, against its 
cauterizing action. 


TO SHARPEN FINE FILES. 

A FTER the files have been liberated from 
. the adhering dirt and filth with a fine 
wire scratch-brush, and a hot, fairly dilute 
solution of crystallized soda, or, what is still 
better, warm soapmakers’ waste lye, place 
them alongside each other in an earthen 
vessel, upon the bottom of which two strong 
wires were laid, so that the files can come in 
contact from below with the following fluid. 
This fluid consists of a careful mixture of 8 . 
parts of cold water and i part concentrated 
nitric acid, to be prepared in another vessel. 
Sufficient of this is poured upon the files that 
they are just covered. The acid is left to 
operate upon the files for about twenty-five 
minutes. After the lapse of this time, they 
are taken out of this bath, treated with the 
scratch-brush in clean water, similar to the 
first time; they are then immersed a second 
time in an acid bath of the same strength (8 
parts water and i part nitric acid), for 
twenty-five minutes, during which time they 
are occasionally changed about. The files 






CARE OF THE BRUSH. 


57 


are then again treated with the scratch¬ 
brush, and returned to the same bath, to 
which one-half part of English sulphuric acid 
has been added. The bath heats, and red¬ 
dish-brown vapors escape, during which 
time the sharpening of the files by corrosion 
progresses. Care must be had to keep the 
vessel (the best is an earthen) in a rocking 
motion, so that the acid operates equally 
upon the files, which are not to be left longer 
than five minutes in this bath. They are 
then withdrawn, again treated, as above 
stated, with the scratch-brush and clean 
water, and again placed in a new bath of 
the same composition, in which they must 
not remain longer than five minutes. 

This ends the operation. They are then 
treated with the scratch-brush, first with 
clean water, and finally they are for a few 
minutes laid in a bath to which a little lime 
water was added ; this is for the purpose of 
neutralizing every trace of acid. They are 
then well rinsed in clean water, wiped with 
a dry rag, and heated to dry the moisture. 
Finally, rub a little oil on them. 


IMPROVED BENZINE JARS. 

I. Take a circular piece of finely per¬ 
forated metal—a copper strainer answers 
well. Then fit it inside your benzine glass, 
rivet in five or six wire feet, not more than 
one-quarter of one inch long, so that you 
will have a small space between the perfo¬ 
rated metal and the bottom of the benzine 
jar; half fill the jar with the purest of benzine 
—the spirit must be at least one-quarter of 
one inch above the perforated metal; lay the 
watch plates, etc., on the perforated metal, 
and the benzine, which holds the thick oil 
and other impurities in solution, will speedily 
precipitate them to the bottom, and their 
further contact with the work is prevented 
by the perforated plate, and, when dried, 
they are perfectly clean. 

II. Take a small wide-necked bottle, fit 
in a cock, and insert a brass wire; turn up 
the end like a fish-hook, so that it will dip 
half an inch into the benzine, hook on the 
wheels, balance, and small pieces, and im¬ 
merse them in the spirit, which will operate 
as before described. A little attention to 
small tools is often the difference between a 
quick workman and a slow one. Workmen 
of equal industry and ability often produce 
widely differing results from the neglect of a 
small outlay in useful tools. 


THE FOOT WHEEL. 

HAVE a 40-pound Webster foot wheel, 
says a correspondent in an exchange, 
which runs true and perfectly noiseless. I 
altered my wheel, balancing it by putting shot 
in the hole left in the inside of the rim. This 
hole was left so as to make the wheel heavy¬ 
sided, so that it should not stop on centers. 
For my part, I do not want a heavy-sided 
wheel that will, every time I stop my lathe 
and take my foot out of the stirrup, run 
backward and forward several times before 
remaining at rest. I can run my lathe very 
slow and it will not stop on me like a heavy¬ 
sided wheel does, unless you are on your 
guard. Sometimes, one wants to slow up 
to examine work, and a heavy-sided wheel 
will stop on you sometimes as the heavy side 
starts up. A heavy-sided wheel will run 
with a jerking motion. My wheel now oc¬ 
casionally stops on centers, and when I go 
to start and find that such is the case, I 
simply touch the rim of the wheel with my 
foot, and it is easily thrown off. Poise your 
wheel, and if you do not like it better, I will 
pay for the time. 


CARE OF THE BRUSH. 

WATCHMAKER’S brushes are a con¬ 
stant utensil in his hands and on the 
workbench; nothing except pliers, screw¬ 
drivers, and tweezers being in more con¬ 
stant use; and how few treat them prop¬ 
erly, or rather, how few keep them in 
proper use. A soft brush for rough work is 
quite useless, a hard one for fine work is 
ruinous, and a dirty brush of either kind is 
a nuisance. The methods adopted for 
cleaning them are nearly as varied as the 
workmen that use them, and there are some 
who never even make the attempt. Some 
clean the brush with dry bread; some lay 
a piece of tissue -or other paper across 
the wide open bench vise, the sharp corners 
formed by the jaws taking off on the paper 
a little of the dirt; others, brush a piece of 
clean cork vigorously, and one man we 
knew who used his knuckles for the same 
purpose. All these various methods are 
imperfect, while some of them can be called 
slovenly. The only good way to clean a 
brush is with soap and water—warm water, 
if convenient, being preferable. Wet two 
brushes, soap them, and rub them together 
in plenty of water, and the job is done. 
The only objection to this way is the delay 





5» 


BROKEN PILLAR SCREW. 


by drying; but this need not be, for six 
brushes assorted will give you three clean 
ones to use, while the other three are dry¬ 
ing ; and the workman who cannot afford 
half a dozen of brushes had better seek 
some more lucrative occupation. More 
damage to the appearance of the movement 
is done by injudicious brushing than by any 
other means. The watch may not be in¬ 
jured in its quality as a timepiece, but it 
grows prematurely old in looks by such 
severe treatment. 


TO MAKE A GOOD DRILL. 

F we wish to make a drill that will act 
to satisfaction, we must be particular 
about getting the point exactly in the 
center; but this is just what is often neg¬ 
lected. Now, it will not be difficult for the 
youngest reader to understand that when 
the point is out of the center, one side of 
that point has to cut a larger share of the 
metal under operation than the other does; 
hence, the side that is cutting its smaller 
share does not do all it might and could, 
if working under different circumstances. 
This, of course, is detrimental to the speedy 
action of the drill, and if the reader would 
verify this statement, he should make two 
drills alike in every respect, except that one 
shall have its point central and the other 
not, and temper both alike. Then let him 
drill through a sheet of brass, and notice 
the time it takes in each case, when he will 
find that the result will be considerably in 
favor of the centrally pointed drill. 


THE TEMPERING OF SMALL DRILLS. 

UCH has been written on this subject, 
and still it is never exhausted; new 
methods for hardening this small tool, so 
useful to the watchmaker, are recommended 
every little while. 

Small drills for drilling holes in arbors, 
staffs, etc., which are frequently very hard 
and difficult to be perforated, are tempered 
in the following manner: After the drill has 
been filed to its proper size (the cutting 
face must not be flattened with the ham¬ 
mer), it is only moderately warmed; avoid¬ 
ing that it does not become red when it is 
run into borax. The drill is thereby coated 
over with a crust of borax, and secluded 
from the air. It may now be hardened by 
heating it only cherry-red, after which it is 


inserted into a piece of borax, or what is 
still better, plunged into mercury; care is to 
be taken in the latter case, however, not to 
breathe the mercury fumes. The borax 
accommodates itself to the heat of the drill, 
melts, and cools it off. Various experiments 
made by cooling in water, petroleum, etc., 
after the drill had been coated with borax, 
were not followed by results as favorable as 
when the drill was plunged into borax or 
mercury ; it becomes exceedingly hard with¬ 
out being brittle, and the watchmaker is able 
to drill articles which cannot be perforated 
with a drill tempered in the ordinary manner. 


GOOD STEEL FOR DRILLS. 

ANY watchmakers make use of broken 
broaches for their small drills, in the 
belief that they are made of the best steel, 
which is not always the case, however, be¬ 
cause the steel used for them is frequently 
burned, and, of course, the steel is thereby 
rendered unfit for such small tools. In order 
to be certain of the quality of their drill, let 
them take a new piece of round steel. 


TO TEMPER A DRILL. 

ELECT none but the finest and best 
steel for your drills. In making them, 
never heat the steel higher than a cherry-red, 
and always hammer until nearly cold. Do 
all your hammering in one way, for if, after 
you have flattened out your piece, you at¬ 
tempt to hammer it back to a square or 
round, you will ruin it. When your drill is 
in proper shape, heat it to a cherry-red, and 
thrust it into a piece of resin or into mercury. 
Some use a solution of cyanide of potash 
and rain water, but the resin or mercury will 
give better results. 


TO TEMPER STEEL. 

PREPARATION is used for the pur¬ 
pose, consisting of one-half a teaspoon¬ 
ful wheat flour, i do. salt, 2 do. water. The 
steel to be hardened is to be heated suffi¬ 
ciently, dipped into this mixture, to be coated 
therewith, then raised to a red glow, and 
thrown into cold soft water. 


BROKEN PILLAR SCREW. 

HOULD a broken pillar screw be so 
rusty that it cannot be taken out with 













DRILLING BOWS. 


59 


a graver or other tool, use a countersink. 
Make a center at the opposite end of the pil¬ 
lar, take a drill a little smaller than the screw, 
so as not to weaken the pillar too much, and 
drill a hole, until the broken screw is reached ; 
then make a punch to go through in the hole, 
and drive out the screw with a hammer, by 
laying the pillar by its shoulder on a stake. 


CARE OF CHUCKS. 

HE watchmaker who values true chucks 
must never force a wire into a chuck that 
is too small to receive it, as it will spring the 
chuck open, and when it is drawn into the 
mouth of the spindle, it is liable to be sprung 
at the cone or shoulders. It is just as liable 
to be damaged at some point by holding a 
piece of wire that is too small for the chuck. 
Keep your chucks in a block under glass 
cover, or in a box kept in your drawer; and 
occasionally brush them out with a stiff 
brush, dipped in benzine. A couple of stiff 
tooth-brushes are nice things, say one for al¬ 
cohol and the other for benzine. 


ISOCHRONISM. 

T will have happened to the repairer and 
adjuster that when a ruined or badly 
mounted balance spring was straightened 
and set in order by him, the rate of the 
watch differed materially, and the spring had 
to be reset; a proof that a spring of equal 
length and thickness, but of another curve, 
requires another adjusting; the power of re¬ 
sistance or tension of the spring is virtually 
altered. Generally, when a watch retards it 
is presumed that its spring is too weak, or, 
what is the same, too long, and every watch¬ 
maker knows that by further drawing through 
the spiral stud, its vibrations are accelerated. 
The cause of the acceleration, however, does 
not lie in the immediate shortening and ap¬ 
proach of its two ends, but in the alteration 
of its curves, whereby the proportion of the 
curve dimension to the length, and thereby 
to the weight of the balance, becomes 
another, and favors a greater power of resist¬ 
ance. If the proportion of length alone 
were to decide, then the same quantity o r 
shortening of the balance spring would pro¬ 
duce the same effect, which, as every one 
knows, is not so. By shortening the spring 
on its inner end, its power of resistance is 
sensibly augmented, because the operating 
power of the balance upon the spring is less 


ened by the change from the center of the 
inner curve. For this self-same reason, the 
inner curve should be treated with all possi¬ 
ble consideration. 


TO MAKE A DIAMOND-POINT TOOL. 

USEFUL little tool for the repairing 
watchmaker is a diamond-point tool, 
which he can easily make himself. In bort , 
such as he buys for jewel-grinding, he will find 
small splinters of diamond, which, by careful 
setting, will form a point by which the pallet 
stone itself can be marked with a fine scratch. 
But in grinding, the scratch must be cut 
away, as, if left, it would be constantly cut¬ 
ting the teeth of the scape wheel. In break¬ 
ing up old diamond cap jewels, it is quite 
easy to select a fragment which can be set 
up. For such a tool, take a bit of steel wire 
about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and 
turn it up to a conical point, and drill a hole 
in the end to match the size of your diamond 
splinter; into this, the fragment can be bur¬ 
nished in, and, if necessary, can. be still fur¬ 
ther secured by brazing. That is, if brass fil¬ 
ings and borax be applied at and around the 
diamond splinter, the brass can be fused 
without injury to the bit of diamond. Such 
a diamond splinter can be used to reduce 
the size of hole jewels. 


TO CLEAN WATCH CASES. 

ERY dirty or oxidized silver or gold 
watch cases can be restored by brush¬ 
ing them with a soft brush and a little rouge 
and oil. The case is afterwards cleaned 
with another brush and a little (best is luke¬ 
warm) water and soap, and finally laid in 
alcohol to remove all traces of the soap. 
The case, after being taken from this bath, 
is dried with a clean rag. It is evident that 
the movement, and, if possible, also the case 
springs, have been taken out. Clean, dry 
sawdust may be used in place of alcohol; 
leave the case in them until thoroughly dry. 


DRILLING BOWS. 

00 D bows are necessary complements 
to good turns, and the watch repairer 
cannot dispense with less than four, varying 
in length from 12 to 24 inches, and in 
strength from that sufficient to make a bal¬ 
ance pivot, with horse or human hair, with¬ 
out slipping on the ferrule, when turning 











6o 


TO SOLDER A STAY SPRING. 


with a fine pointed graver; and the others 
increasing in strength to what is required in 
turning barrel arbors, stoppings, and the 
larger drilling operations in watch work. 


TO POLISH PIVOTS. 

HERE are a number of ways to polish 
pivots. After turning the pivot down 
about to size, it is ground with oil-stone 
dust and oil till the marks of the graver are 
removed, and a smooth “ gray ” or dead- 
white surface is obtained—the pivot now 
being of a size to barely enter its hole and 
perfectly shaped. It is then polished with 
sharp or hard rouge. Both the grinding and 
polishing are best' done with slips of bell- 
metal filed to shape and used like the old- 
fashioned pivot burnishers. Many workmen 
finish off with Vienna lime or diamantine to 
give a fine gloss, but this is hardly necessary 
if the polishing with sharp rouge is well done, 
as that gives a splendid black luster that is 
the ideal of perfect polish for steel. The 
polishing should not be continued too long, 
or the surface will become a sort of brown 
color and of inferior appearance. If the 
“ gray ” has been well done, a very little 
further manipulation will be sufficient to 
produce the polish, and, as soon as it is 
reached, the process should stop. But if the 
brown shows itself, the surface should again 
be stoned off and the polishing repeated. 
Some workmen take the trouble to finish the 
pivot in the Jacot lathe with the pivot bur¬ 
nisher, in order to harden the surface and 
make it wear better, and less easily scratched 
and marred. The foregoing refers to work¬ 
ing with the live spindle lathe, but if the 
repairer uses the old-fashioned steel verge 
lathe or “ turns,” he is, of course, confined 
to the pivot file and burnisher for finishing 
the pivots. _ 

TO STRAIGHTEN A PIVOT. 

OME watchmakers will object to the 
straightening of a pivot, and rather break 
it off and put in a new one. Some may try to 
avoid the labor and expense, and sometimes 
a pivot can be straightened and act as well 
as a new one, in the following manner: I 
put it in a pivot lathe, with or without screw 
collet, place in a rest just a little smaller than 
the pivot, first springing it as near straight 
as I can see or tell, then carefully run a 
small steel burnisher over the pivot, pressing 
sufficiently hard to spring it straight; the 


wheel will revolve under the pressure (if it 
does not, use collet and bow). Great care 
is necessary to keep the pivot from rolling 
out of the rest. 


TO FIX A CAP JEWEL. 

O fix an end-stone, the cap must be 
held by its edge in the sliding tongs 
and shellac carefully applied round the edge 
of the hollow. It is advisable to hold the 
cap in a small tool formed of two parallel 
blades, as, when reversed so as to press the 
stone on a flat surface, the shellac will be 
spread over the end-stone, from which it will 
be removed with difficulty. 


TO MAKE A PIVOT FILE. 

RESS up a piece of wood, file fash¬ 
ion, about one inch broad, and glue a 
piece of fine emery paper upon it. Then 
shape your file as you wish it, of the best 
cast steel, and, before tempering, pass your 
emery piece several times heavily across it 
diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry- 
red and plunging it into linseed oil. Old 
worn pivot files may be dressed over and 
made new by this process. At first glance 
one would be led to think them to be too 
slightly cut to work well, but this is not so. 
They dress a pivot more rapidly than any 
other file. 


THE LENGTH OF A BALANCE 
SPRING. 

HE length of a balance spring is im¬ 
portant, especially in flat springs, with¬ 
out overcoil. By varying the strength of 
the wire two flat springs may be produced, 
each of half the diameter of the balances, 
but of very unequal lengths, either of which 
would yield the same number of vibrations, 
as long as the extent of the vibrations re¬ 
mained constant, yet if the spring is of an 
improper length, although it may bring the 
watch to time in one position, it will fail to 
keep the long and short vibrations isochro¬ 
nous. Then, again, a good length of spring 
for a watch with a cylinder escapement vi¬ 
brating barely one full turn, would clearly 
be insufficient for a lever vibrating one turn 
and a half. 


TO SOLDER A STAY SPRING. 

TAY or lifting springs are often broken, 
and the watchmaker has frequently none 
of the right size nor the time to make a new 














REPAIRING CHEAP CLOCKS. 


one. In such a predicament, he can mend 
the old one, and have it just as good as new, 
by placing the broken parts together and 
binding them firmly to a piece of coal, then 
soldering them with 18-karat gold. It re¬ 
quires a strong heat and plenty of borax; 
then finish off, nicely harden and temper in 
the usual manner. _ 

THE INFLUENCE OF CURB PINS. 

F the balance spring is not entirely 
equidistant from both the curb pins in 
a state of repose, or, what is still worse, if it 
touches one of the pins, it will, when it 
makes smaller vibrations, be more subject to 
the influence of these curb pins, and conse¬ 
quently its vibrations will become quicker. 
It will often happen that with a certain ex¬ 
tension of the vibrations, it leaves one of the 
pins, and vibrates free from all impediment, 
therefore with less power, for a certain time. 


TO CUT THE SCREW TO THE FAN 
OF A MUSIC BOX. 

HE country watchmaker will be re¬ 
quested to do many a job of repairing, 
for which there are specialists in any large 
city. This is the case also in the present 
instance. Select a piece of steel wire a little 
larger than the entire diameter of the screw, 
and turn up a flank for your screw and staff. 
Of course, the reader will understand that 
the piece of wire should be hardened and 
tempered to a spring temper. Now take a 
piece of fine iron binding wire, and wind it 
on a wire a trifle smaller than the size of the 
screw. Wind the coils close together, and 
when you have an inch, say, wound, rernove 
from the large wire and stretch it out like a 
spiral spring until the spaces between the 
coils exactly correspond to the spaces of the 
teeth which are to work in the screw; a 
gradual stretching is the best—stretch and 
try. Cut off three-eighths of one inch of 
the fine wire spiral, slip it on the screw 
blanks, on which it should go easily, not too 
tight, but so that the coils touch the screw 
blank. Soft solder this fast, and you have 
a guide that, with a double safe edge-file you 
can quickly file out to a screw. Finish with 
emery, polish with rouge or diamantine. 


D PALLET ACTION. 

HERE is a class of trouble in pallet 
action, in the way of scape wheels 
which are not round. Frequently this is so 


61 

much, that part of the teeth of the scape 
wheel hardly pass the pallets, while the other 
side will trip; that is, the teeth will not 
securely catch on the locking face. Usually, 
in such cases, the scape wheel has been 
badly set on the pinion. This can generally 
be told by inspection of the pinion at the 
point where the scape wheel is set. Some¬ 
times it arises from the scape wheel pinion 
having been pivoted. If the last cause is 
the one, a new pivot will cure the trouble; 
but if the pinion is all right we must seek 
for the cause somewhere else. We will first 
find out where the fault is, and then tell how 
to correct it. If we put the scape wheel 
and pinion into the double calipers and re¬ 
volve it, we can readily determine which is 
at fault—the scape wheel or the pinion. If 
a pivot is the fault, we answered this above ; 
if it seems to be in the wheel, knock the 
pinion out, and test the wheel if it is round. 
Usually, in such cases, the trouble is in the 
manner in which the scape wheel has been 
set on the pinion. The seat or place where 
the scape wheel goes on the pinion was 
turned too small, and when the wheel was 
riveted on, the riveting was done in such a 
way as to throw the shake or play all to one 
side. Such a condition is quite serious, as 
we cannot well put the pinion again in the 
lathe and true up the seat, as it is already 
too small; and it is impracticable to bush or 
close the hole in the scape wheel. The 
correct way to proceed is to test the scape 
wheel for round, and see if it is true; if not, 
it is easy to open the hole in the center to 
one side, so that the wheel will be true if the 
pinion is true. Now, there are two ways to 
go about correcting the trouble : First, and 
best, put in a new pinion; next, use the old 
pinion if it is long enough. 


REPAIRING CHEAP CLOCKS. 

HERE are few things that tax a work¬ 
man’s patience and ability more than 
the repairing of common clocks. The low 
prices that are paid for repairs and the ex¬ 
acting demands that are made for their 
performance render it increasingly difficult. 
Among the most troublesome that I have 
found is the French drum clock with short 
pendulum. The most frequent cause of 
stopping is this: the back pivot, just above 
the pendulum, soon wears flat, which in¬ 
creases friction and stops the clock. The 
cheapest and best remedy is to file up the 









62 


TO MAKE A COMPOSITION FILE. 


pivot to a knife edge or V-shape, which will 
give it a light action. 


TO MAKE A DRILL. 

T is quite a difficult piece of work to 
make a true running drill in the drill¬ 
ing spindle of the chuck lathe. To do this 
well do not turn the drill between the lathe 
center, but fit the steel direct into the spindle 
and turn the spoon on. It will receive the 
proper form and size in the lathe, after which 
it is filed flat in front. Such a drill requires 
a little more labor, but it is far stronger than 
the hammered ones, and it is really a piece 
of downright carelessness if the repairer 
breaks it. Moreover, a drill made in this 
manner must unconditionally run true. It 
is best to make it as short as possible. 
Every drill should have only two cutting 
edges—one on each side; this will expedite 
work not alone in the foot lathe, but also 
with the drill bow. 


BOWS. 

HALEBONE can be reduced in 
strength or rendered more uniform by 
being filed with a fine rasp, or by scraping 
its surface with a piece of broken glass. If, 
instead of fixing a brass end with a hook to 
the bow, it is desired to form a hook of the 
whalebone itself, hold the extremity in boil¬ 
ing oil for a short time, when it will soften; 
then form the hook, maintaining the whale¬ 
bone in the required position until sufficiently 
cool to set. A form of bow has been intro¬ 
duced that consists of a brass handle, into 
which slides a steel wire bent into the requi¬ 
site form ; the strength, of course, depending 
on the thickness of steel wire used. 


POLISHING THE FOURTH PINION. 

HE best pivoters generally polish the 
fourth pinion like any other arbor, but 
if nervous or heavy-handed, a special brass 
center with half of its diameter filed away, 
and a convenient slit for the pivot to rest 
nearly all its length in may be used, but it is 
not to be recommended, as a careless slip 
will destroy the pivot, which otherwise in th< 
turns would have a certain amount of elas¬ 
ticity. The resting of the little finger on a 
convenient part of the turns, and letting it 
move with the polisher, is an item in polish¬ 


ing pivots, the fingers being used to regulate 
the pressure of the arm and hand; the most 
troublesome pinion to pivot is the Swiss 
scape pinion, owing to its having no arbor. 


AUDIBLE UNROLLING OF THE MAIN¬ 
SPRING. 

I T happens occasionally that the main¬ 
spring will make a peculiar grating noise 
in the barrel while in the act of unroll¬ 
ing. The repairer should, if possible, cor¬ 
rect this, because it may occasion other 
errors, and the power exerted by the main¬ 
spring must necessarily be unequal. It is 
most generally caused by the scant room in 
the barrel; the spring in the act of unfolding 
in the contracted barrel space must naturally 
scrape on the cover or bottom. The spring 
may also, when it grates in one of the com¬ 
mon clocks, where the barrel wheel supplies 
the place of cover, catch on the dial, espe¬ 
cially when this is too thick or shaky. Burr 
inside the barrel may also cause the audible 
development of the spring. 


TO PREPARE SHELLAC FOR USE. 

HELLAC can be dissolved in alcohol, 
and kept in a liquid form, in a close 
stoppered bottle, to prevent evaporation. To 
use it, it is only necessary to apply it, where 
required, with the pointed end of pegwood, 
or small camel’s-hair brush, and gently heat 
over a lamp, when it will quickly harden. 
Or it may be used in chips, as received from 
a drug store; a good way to do, when set¬ 
ting pallet jewels, ruby pins, etc., is to heat 
a piece over the lamp and draw it out to a 
long, slender thread, then break the thread 
into small particles of suitable lengths for 
cementing the jewel; by this means, the 
shellac can be placed just where it is needed, 
and it will not run all over the pallets or 
table roller. _ 

TO MAKE A COMPOSITION FILE. 

HESE files, which are frequently used 
by watchmakers and other metal work¬ 
ers, for grinding and polishing, and the color 
of which resembles silver, are composed of 
8 parts copper, 2 parts tin, 1 part zinc, 
1 part lead. They are cast in forms and 
shaped upon the grindstone; the metal is 
very hard, and therefore worked with dif¬ 
ficulty with the file. 












THE MOVABLE STUD. 


6 3 


DIAMOND FILES. 

HAPE your file of brass, and charge 
with diamond dust, as in case of the 
mill, grade the dust in accordance with the 
coarse or fine character of the file desired. 


CLEANING-PITH. 

HE stalk of the common mullen makes 
the best pith for cleaning pivots. The 
best time to gather it is winter, when the 
stalk is dry. Some use cork instead of pith, 
but it will hardly answer the purpose. 


VERDIGRIS SPOTS. 

CORRESPONDENT of the D. Uhrm. 
Ztg. inquires how to remove verdi¬ 
gris spots from gilt parts of a large clock, 
to which some one responds by saying 
that they are easily removed with a few 
drops of spirits of hartshorn upon the offend¬ 
ing spots; or wet a small ball of silk paper 
with it and pad them until removed, after¬ 
ward drying the spots thoroughly with a like 
pellet of dry paper. If the spots do not dis¬ 
appear at once, repeat the process. If the 
spots have shown themselves for a length of 
time, of course, the gilding has been ruined 
and must be touched up again, after remov¬ 
ing the spots, with a fine camel’s-hair brush 
and shell gold. _ 

PALLET LOCKINGS. 

N respect to the pallet lockings, the 
equality of sharpness of draught in¬ 
ward is readily judged to be about equal by 
trial—some persons try them by placing the 
guard pin against the round edge of the 
roller, and gently putting the peg on the 
escape wheel. But the equality of their 
draught inward does not quite prove their 
equal resistance to the reciprocated force of 
the balance, nor does the writer know of any 
way to prove when they are so, strictly, but 
he will make some remarks about them. It 
is to be observed that the two lockings are 
at unequal distances from the center of the 
pallet, and also that with deeper depths the 
wheel drops further under the inside locking, 
so that in unlocking the wheel has to be 
moved further back to get the locking out 
from under the tooth ; still, as the radius to 
the inside locking is the shortest, therefore 
the long arm of the lever bears a greater 
ratio to that shortest pallet radius, and 
although the inside locking of itself may be 


a trifle the hardest, yet it may not subtract 
any more velocity from the balance in un¬ 
locking than the outside one ; and, indeed, 
if the inside locking of itself was as easy to 
unlock as that of the outside we should then 
be certain that the resistances to the force 
of the balance would be unequal, as the two 
radii to the lockings were unequal. Un¬ 
equal radii must have unequal resisting lock¬ 
ings to subtract equal portions of velocity 
from the same reciprocated force of the bal¬ 
ance. 

In light pallet depths the wheel has only 
to be moved back in the locking a mere 
trifle, but in very deep depths or long run to 
the bankings, the wheel has to be moved 
back a good bit. It is the moving back of 
the wheel to get the locking out from under 
the tooth that causes the principal resistance 
to the force of the balance, for if there were 
no motion backward of the wheel the un¬ 
locking would only be a frictional resistance, 
like in a regulator clock ; but this is impossi¬ 
ble in watches, for there must be a detach¬ 
ment by draught inward sharp enough to 
free the guard pin without any hesitation, or 
else there is danger that the vibration of the 
balance is frequently interfered with, which, 
in some cases, will stop the watch. 

All pallets that make equal arcs by the 
two workings have, and must have, the 
deepest hold of the outside locking. Sup¬ 
pose the depth hold to be such that each of 
the pallets make an arc of 3 0 in the unlock¬ 
ing, it is easily seen that 3 0 of the larger 
outer circle which the pallets describe is a 
greater space than 3 0 of the smaller inner 
circle, and the piece of stone which must 
enter the wheel is the greatest on the outside 
locking—and if pallets were made to draw 
off equally, that depth at which they would 
do so must be planted precisely or they 
would be unequal in the draw off. As a 
rule, it will be found that if the wheel just 
catches a tripping hold of the outside lock¬ 
ing and just ships the inside locking, when 
tried in a depthing tool before closing the 
tool to the depth, the unlockings will draw 
off pretty nearly equal when in at the depth, 
provided the depth is not very deep. 


THE MOVABLE STUD. 

HE great objection to the ordinary 
balance spring lies in the distance of 
the center of the balance cock from any one 
of its points of fastening; this causes the 










64 


THE ADJUSTING OF LARGE AND SMALL WATCHES. 


body of the spring to crowd to one side in 
vibrations of any extent. A change of form 
takes place, which opposes the progress of 
the isochronal development. 

This defect may be overcome by not fast¬ 
ening the spring to the bridge, but to the 
end of a straight spring screwed with a foot 
upon the plate. This construction is known 
by the name of “spring stud,” or “ movable 
stud.” By the vibrations of the balance the 
stud bends, and when the balance spring 
closes, its end approaches towards the cen¬ 
ter, while in the opening of the former it 
withdraws. This disposition favors the 
isochronal development of the spring to a 
high degree. 

The difficulty is to find the exact propor¬ 
tions. It is evident that by a given balance 
spring the spring stud must comply with 
certain conditions of length, thickness, flexi¬ 
bility, etc., which until now could be estab¬ 
lished only by experiments. Besides this, 
strictly considered, the head of the stud 
must have almost no weight, so that its 
elasticity alone would operate, and its weight 
would not enter into account as a different 
power, between the vertical and horizontal 
positions. 

This arrangement, says Cl. Saunier, is still 
too new to express an opinion on its merit. 
C. Frodsham, of London, introduced a flat 
balance spring with a spring stud in a marine 
chronometer, and it has been shown that this 
chronometer was one of the best he ever 
made. Raby, of Paris, also used the spring 
stud in watches, and expressed great satis¬ 
faction as to their performances. 


TOOL FOR FASTENING ROLLER 
JEWELS. 

AVING been benefited so much by 
the many good suggestions appearing in 
The Circular, I deem it but right that I 
should add my mite toward the fund of 
information. For fastening a roller jewel 
I have made a little tool which I find very 
convenient. It is made of a small piece of 
brass plate, say one inch long by one-quarter 
of an inch wide, with a slit lengthwise. 
Fasten this plate to a handle three inches 
long, made of iron wire, with a rivet. To 
use, heat the brass plate, then lay your bal¬ 
ance on with the table roller flat on the 
plate, the end of staff and the roller jewel 
extending though the slit. When the shellac 


has melted see that the roller jewel is in cor¬ 
rect position before the shellac hardens. 


THE ADJUSTING OF LARGE AND 
SMALL WATCHES. 

HEN we speak of adjusting watches, 
we are generally understood to mean 
adjusting to temperature and position or 
isochronism, whichever may be the proper 
term. In what I am going to say about the 
adjusting of large and small watches, I mean 
to speak only of position, adjustments, or ad¬ 
justments to isochronism, and I will have 
nothing to say about the adjustment to tem¬ 
perature, though the latter may, perchance, 
be the most important of the two. 

In adjusting watches to position, or in 
isochronizing the vibrations of the balance 
to all the conditions which a watch may be 
subjected to, we have to deal pre-eminently 
with the following factors, while there are 
others which it may not be necessary to 
mention in discussing the subject from the 
proposed standpoint: 

1. The escapement. 

2. The balance spring. 

3. The momentum of the balance. 

4. Friction. 

The most perfect isochronism could, no 
doubt, be produced, could we have a bal¬ 
ance which could vibrate without any fric¬ 
tion whatsoever, but in all watches made the 
balance can only vibrate on resting points 
or pivots, and its vibrations can only be kept 
up by its receiving an occasional impulse by 
means of the escapement; and here we en¬ 
counter at once one of the worst enemies to 
a perfect isochronism, i.e., “friction.” This 
friction is, therefore, twofold. 1. The fric¬ 
tion of the pivots, and 2. The friction caused 
by the balance coming in contact with the 
escapement. Of these frictions, the first is 
constant and the second is intermitting. 

What means have we to overcome these 
frictions? 

1. The momentum of the balance. 

What is momentum? Momentum is 
weight multiplied by velocity. A steamship 
weighing 3,000 tons and moving at the rate 
of 2 miles per hour, has double the momen¬ 
tum of a steamship weighing 300 tons mov¬ 
ing at the rate of 1 o miles per hour, because 
3,000 tons weight multiplied by 2 miles 
velocity is equal to 6,000, while 300 tons 
weight multiplied by 10 miles velocity is 







REGULATION OF WATCHES. 


6 5 


only equal to one-half, or 3,000. In a 
watch balance, momentum is represented by 
the weight of its rim near its outer edge, 
multiplied by the velocity at which a given 
point in this rim moves in a given time and 
at a given distance. The proportions of the 
size, or, rather, of the weight, of the arm or 
arms of a balance, have a good deal to do 
with the momentum of a balance, as will be 
readily understood. 

2. The balance spring. The balance 
spring is to the balance what gravity is to 
the pendulum, and it exerts a continuous 
influence which tends to bring the balance 
back to a point of rest, and it overcomes the 
inertia of the balance in this respect, and in 
so doing becomes instrumental and auxiliary 
to unlocking the escapement, overcoming 
with the co-operation of the momentum of 
the balance, the pivot friction and the inter¬ 
mitting friction of the escapement. 

It will be seen at a glance from the fore¬ 
going, that the most perfect isochronism 
attainable can only be had by reducing the 
pivot and escapement friction to a mini¬ 
mum, by the greatest mechanical skill and 
by the most intelligent manipulation. And 
the larger the machine the more perfectly 
we can carry out the details of its construc¬ 
tion. (Of course, there is a limit to every¬ 
thing.) Hence the size of a ship’s chro¬ 
nometer. 

When we consider that in making the 
best 18-size pocket watch movements, we 
make the balance pivots often as small as 
0.004 an inch an d escapements to match, 
and we present the question whether we can 
reduce sizes and frictions proportionately to 
a 6-size watch, the answer must be an em¬ 
phatic “ No.” The pivot and escapement 
friction in so small a watch, therefore, be¬ 
comes such a preponderating factor, that the 
isochronizing of the vibrations of the balance 
thereof must be at best but a crippled job. 

In speaking of small watches, we must 
include in the list some of the complicated 
watches, such as repeaters, etc., where the 
want of space and a limited motive power 
admit of only a small train and escapement 
and balance to match, and it was with one 
of these that I had my first experience. 

I cannot conclude my communication and 
convey the impression that what I have said 
is all that ought to have been said; and, if 
circumstances will permit, I hope to be able to 
refer to the subject again incidentally, treat¬ 
ing it from an entirely different standpoint. 


REGULATION OF WATCHES. 

HE accurate time-keeping qualities of 
a watch, presuming the works to have 
been properly constructed, depend in the 
main upon the regulation ; while it is a well- 
known fact that the great majority of people 
judge the quality of a watch solely by the 
accuracy of the time it keeps. 

To move the regulator to the right or to 
the left, thus lengthening or shortening the 
hairspring and thereby causing the watch 
to run slower or faster, as the case may be, 
is a very simple matter in itself, but the 
science of regulation lies much deeper than 
this, since accuracy can only be obtained 
when all the parts are in proper order. It 
is therefore necessary at all times to be as¬ 
sured that certain faults do not exist, because 
their presence unperceived might render 
accuracy absolutely impossible; hence, to 
summarize some of these defects briefly may 
not be inappropriate. In this article the 
treatise will be confined to the anchor watch, 
elbowed spiral, and compensated balance; 
attention being directed hereafter to the 
regulation of the cylinder watch. 

A subtle defect, and one which inexpe¬ 
rienced workman do not readily perceive 
because they occur almost solely in fine 
watches, is a too great precision in the per¬ 
formance of the escapement, but which, 
however, is not noticeable upon the vibra¬ 
tions of the balance. In order to remedy 
this it is sometimes necessary to remove the 
gilding at the place where the pallet rests 
while it is locked. To ascertain if the action 
is too strict, all the teeth of the wheel should 
be made to pass by using a small wooden 
point, in order to push the pallet of the 
anchor to the locking point on each side 
of the escapement wheel. In the great 
majority of cases the teeth will not pass 
equally well on both sides, to rectify which 
it is often only necessary to raise the bed of 
the gilding on one side. This defect does 
not exist in anchors in which the locking is 
made on the stem of the wheel, though but 
few escapements of this kind are met with 
on account of the greater care required in 
their manufacture. 

The ruby holes, also, should not be too 
constricted, there being no danger in allow¬ 
ing a little play to the pivots in the holes. 
In the better grade of watches the ruby 
holes are usually of a fair size, well oiled 
and well set, with the exception of the cen¬ 
ter holes, which are often too exact, the fac- 



66 


REGULATION OF WATCHES. 


tory workman imagining that to make them 
well only little play must be allowed. The 
consequence is that the oil does not remain 
upon the pivots, entailing a rapid alteration 
in the rate of speed of the movement owing 
to the pivots wearing rough, and getting cut. 
Too often these holes do not receive from 
the manufacturer the attention which their 
importance demands. 

The axis ought to be well tempered so as 
to have the pivots as hard as possible, and 
which, conical and well burnished, should 
not be too large, but ought to be of such a 
size as not to leave any chance of breaking. 
That the pivots should be well rounded is of 
prime importance, since oval pivots produce 
the same effect as a balance of bad equilib¬ 
rium, and occasion much trouble in estab¬ 
lishing the isochronism of the positions. 
Let the ends of the pivots be well burnished 
and slightly rounded, and better still, that 
that part of the pivot which works in the 
hole should be perfectly cylindrical, so that 
it may leave the axis just play enough' be¬ 
tween its counter-points. 

The balance spring requires particular 
attention; requiring to be very upright, and 
to turn well round. Many watchmakers 
have been surprised, after having well 
rounded a balance to discover, when the 
watch is brought back to them six months 
later, that the balance is no longer round, 
and that the regulation is changed. To 
avoid this, warm the balance on a metal plate 
to a temperature of 6o° or 70 0 Cent., make 
it round and warm it afresh until quite cer¬ 
tain that it is in the same condition as at 
first. Care should be taken, if it is held in 
the fingers during very warm weather, to 
place it each time upon a plate of cold 
metal, as it may happen that the heat will 
close it up, and that a moderate temperature 
will change the diameter and of course inter¬ 
fere with the regulating. It is usual also to 
obtain its diameter and height by that of the 
barrel and mainspring. Its size should be 
the diameter of the cover of the barrel, and 
the height of the rim just half that of the 
spring. It should be furnished with fourteen 
screws of gold, rather less than more. 

The practice of regulating at different 
temperatures is already well understood, yet 
for the sake of perspicuity it should be re¬ 
membered that when a watch goes slower in 
heat the screws are carried toward the end 
of the blade of the balance, and if that does 
not suffice, then change the last gold screw 


for one of platina; but this latter course is 
very unusual, owing to the length of the 
spiral now in use. If the watch gains in 
heat the screws should be set back; and if 
after they have all been put back the watch 
still gains, the arms of the balance must be 
shortened, and two additional small screws 
added. With a little practice the desired 
result will be obtained. 

For the sake of convenience, regulating 
the balance has been considered prior to 
that of the spiral, but it should be borne in 
mind that the former can in actual practice 
only be regulated after the isochronism of the 
latter has been accomplished ; because if any 
change is needed in the spiral, the balance 
must then be regulated again. 

Often it becomes necessary to put in a 
new spiral ’ altogether, in the selection of 
which those of moderate size are preferable, 
since with the small ones considerable diffi¬ 
culty is met in finding the isochronism; 
while with the large ones, although this is 
much easier accomplished, yet they are not 
safe for a pocket watch, the movements of 
the wearer, especially when the coils are 
close, causing them to touch each other, or 
to touch the balance. Many watchmakers 
have met instances in which larger spirals 
almost caught the center wheel, and to pre¬ 
vent which have been obliged to put in an 
accessory piece; and besides this, a long 
spiral is more susceptible of shocks which 
might interfere with regulating, especially in 
watches that are liable to receive rough 
treatment, as for instance those worn by 
railroad men, and those engaged in similar 
pursuits. 

It is usual to take for the diameter of the 
spiral the radius of the balance and the 
number of turns fifteen; this size and this 
number permit the separation of the coils, 
and avoid the danger of their touching each 
other through shocks. The spiral should be 
hard and the blade high—as high as the 
watch will permit. Generally the spiral of 
low blade produces a noise which the accus¬ 
tomed ear detects, and which indicates some¬ 
thing wrong with the regulator. This may 
be produced by an uneven steel wire, and, 
in order to discover if the wire is equal 
throughout, observe attentively its workings ; 
if it is uneven, a slight vibration of the 
thickest part will be perceptible, upon dis¬ 
covering which the spiral should be im¬ 
mediately changed, for it will only be loss 
of time to try to make it isochronal. The 


REPAIRING OF ENGLISH PATENT LEVER WATCHES. 


6 ? 


requisites of a perfect flat or elbowed spiral 
are that it should not wriggle, and if it is of 
fifteen turns, the eighth should not leave its 
place, though this is contrary to the opin¬ 
ions of some watchmakers who have con¬ 
fined their observation to the helicoid spiral, 
in which all the blades are equally displaced. 


REPAIRING OF ENGLISH PATENT 
LEVER WATCHES. 

HE NEVER an English patent lever 
watch is offered for repair, the watch¬ 
maker well understands that a difficult and 
tedious job is before him. Very often the 
cap has been hammered out by some botch, 
and evidence may be visible that the top 
bridge has been pressed this way and that, 
while the heavy and clumsy expansion bal¬ 
ance wheel with its lazy motion, which be¬ 
comes still slower when held in different 
positions, presents in itself a hard problem. 
Before taking the watch to pieces the bank¬ 
ing should be carefully examined by guid¬ 
ing, to determine whether or not the escape 
wheel has a safe rest upon the anchor pallets. 
Should the banking be safe, but wide, close 
one, or, if necessary, both of the banking 
pins; bearing in mind, however, that very 
little play is needed. Friction is thus re¬ 
duced, and the impulse power of the pallets 
thereby increased; which is in turn trans¬ 
ferred to the balance wheel, increasing its 
curve of vibration. Should the fork pin 
squeeze against the roller, thus clogging the 
motion of the balance wheel, the banking is 
insecure, and after the watch has been taken 
to pieces and the escapement reached, the 
fork pin should be bent a trifle forward. 

Supposing the watch to be in pieces, ex¬ 
amine each piece separately and thoroughly. 
First, put the center wheel between the plates 
and notice if its motion is free and easy; if 
it has the right play, or if it is rubbing on 
the bottom of the out-cut. A small supply 
of ordinary pins, with heads filed gradually 
thinner to the end, should always be kept on 
hand to be used in place of the usual pillar 
pins, a handy substitute which admits of 
easy insertion and ready withdrawal without 
pliers. If the center wheel moves freely and 
the pinion is well fastened, observe whether 
the cannon pinion has made a hard impres¬ 
sion on the front of the dial plate, and if so, 
take it off by making a flat counter-sink— 
the bottom of the cannon pinion must never 
touch the plate. 


The fusee wheel next requires attention, 
and more than ordinary pains must be taken 
with this; because this wheel causes more 
trouble in an English lever than all the other 
wheels together. Test the wheel between 
the plates, and in a great majority of in¬ 
stances it will be found to be out of order, 
and sometimes so badly as to absorb more 
than half the power of a strong mainspring. 
Examine the stop-piece situated in the stud, 
to see if it squeezes against the fusee. This 
piece, generally furnished with a stiff spring, 
reaches too high up; if so, make the spring 
softer and stretch the lower end with the 
hammer so much that the front end touches 
the plate ; take the screw-driver or penknife, 
squeeze it under the stop-piece close to the 
stud, and bend it carefully up a little, just 
enough to give the stop-snout of the fusee 
a free passage, and nothing more. If the 
edge of the lower end does not give out 
enough when stretched (sometimes it gets 
too thin), put a new stop-piece in the watch. 
Again place the fusee-wheel between the 
plates and carefully note that the stop-snout 
passes freely between the stop-piece and 
plate, forward and backward. When this is 
corrected, proceed to the stop-snout of the 
fusee. Here a neglect is met, curiously 
enough, which has been carried on for hun¬ 
dreds of years, and perhaps longer. The 
snout is invariably too short to secure a safe 
stopping, after winding up. Fusee, staff, 
and snout are in one solid piece, making the 
job of filing it out very difficult for an 
ordinary watchmaker. However, it can 
usually be accomplished if the snout is not 
too thin, by placing it upon a suitable anvil, 
and with a hammer stretch it as much as 
possible and then bend off the stop-piece 
from the fusee. Place the fusee in the up¬ 
per plate only, to see that a safe counter- 
stemming is produced. If so, there is no 
danger of chain-breaking on account of an 
imperfect stop-work. Put the wheel again 
between the plates, and if the work has been 
done properly, the fusee wheel will be found 
to move with perfect freedom. 

Examine the chain on its track; if it runs 
off, file the turns a little deeper with a sharp 
and well-fitting screw-head file, bearing in 
mind that the chain should be only one inch 
longer than actually necessary, to prevent 
running one turn over another. Now place 
the two w r heels together between the two 
plates, center and fusee, and examine the 
pitchings or depth, and when traces of hard 




68 


REPAIRING OF ENGLISH PATENT LEVER WATCHES. 


wear are observable on the front side of the 
teeth, the wheel must be worked over, a job 
requiring both skill and experience. Close 
below the teeth is generally a little cornice, 
which must not be. destroyed. Place the 
teeth—and only the teeth—upon a sharp- 
edge anvil, fastened in a bench vise, and 
hammer them out, one after the other, until 
all are done; but the hammer must hit no 
other places. The marks of the blow must 
be removed with fine emery paper without 
touching the gilding, while with a small 
rounding-up file (entirely smoothed on the 
oil-stone) the front side of the teeth must be 
polished. 

Assuming the depth to be right, observe 
that the wheels do not touch each other, and 
that the pin of the maintaining spring reaches 
out far enough to catch the teeth of the 
center wheel. Then try the click-work by 
turning the fusee around the wheel. If the 
rattling of the double click is heard plainly, 
all is right; otherwise, take off the wheel and 
remedy what is necessary by putting • in 
either a new click-work or a new ratchet 
wheel. The correction of the mainspring 
click-work yet remains to be done. The 
point of the click must be sharp and the 
click itself level with the ratchet wheel. 
The click-spring is invariably too stiff, absorb¬ 
ing too much power, and must be made 
softer. If the spring is small and curved, 
file it thinner at a point about half an inch 
from the stud—never at the front end ; while 
doing the job support the spring upon a 
cork, placed in a vise, or in some other safe 
way. If the spring is a broad, band-shaped 
one, cut in with a shoulder file a quarter 
inch from the front end, and file out half, 
or a little more, of its whole width, close to 
the stud. In filing this spring thinner, the 
broad side presents the difficulty, on account 
of its hardness and brittleness, yet the spring 
must not possess more stiffness than is 
absolutely necessary for working the click 
properly. The two wheels, maintaining 
click-work and stop-work, are now in per¬ 
fect order. The third wheel now requires 
attention. Place it between the plates, and 
if it works free and easy, do the same with 
the fourth; then put in both together and 
examine depth and freedom. The rule is, 
examine each wheel singly, then in pairs. 

If the watch is jeweled, holding the plate 
firmly in your hand, put each pivot in its 
pivot hole, and observe that the fall is equal 
on all sides; if not so, roll the pivot a little 


thinner, irrespective of how free it seems, 
otherwise when oiled the pivot will stick. 
If the watch is working in metal bearings, 
put a pivot broach in each hole to see if it 
is straight; in many cases it will not be, in 
which case a few chips must be taken out 
with the broach very carefully, in order to 
straighten the hole as much as possible. If 
the hole is getting too large, bushing will be 
necessary. 

Examine the escape wheel as to freedom 
and pitch in the same manner as before, and 
if the pinion is too large, it must be re-turned 
to its proper size, the edges smoothed, and 
the teeth of the fourth wheel well polished 
with a smoothed rounding-up file. 

The escapement next requires attention. 
The arbor-pin has been bent already a little 
forward, but by doing so, frequently the free 
passage through segment of the roller-plate 
will be destroyed; therefore take off the 
roller, hold it in the cuts of a watch-hand 
tong, or some other suitable way, and file 
the segment straight down to its bottom ; 
the two edges are mostly in the way. If 
there is left plenty of material between the 
surface and the hole in which the roller-pin 
is fastened, hollow out the newly-made sur¬ 
face with a bird’s-tongue file to restore the 
segment form again. In no other way must 
the proper hold of the roller-pin be de¬ 
stroyed ; better the fork-pin be bent a trifle 
back. 

Next comes the hairspring roller. Take 
off the hairspring and roller, fasten the latter 
upon a fitting turning arbor, and turn both 
sides of the roller down as much as possi¬ 
ble, the front side even a little under-cut, 
without endangering a safe hold of the hair¬ 
spring. 

The balance wheel is now reached, the 
weight of which must, be in proportion to 
the motive power. “ A balance wheel too 
heavy does not admit a good curve of vibra¬ 
tion ; a balance wheel too light would act as 
a fly, but not as a regulator.” The balance 
wheel is almost invariably too heavy, to 
rectify which, the arms or spokes must be 
filed much smaller, and made to incline 
a little toward the center. To do the job 
with security, put a good sized piece of wire 
perpendicular in the vise, bend the top end 
outward nearly in a right angle and furnish 
it with one or two cross cuts deep enough 
to give the balance wheel a firm support 
when filing the spokes ; afterward file away 
all unnecessary metal around the staff, taking 


ABOUT GAUGES. 


69 


off as much as possible without interfering 
with a safe hold of the center-staff. Then 
file the drums a little slanting so as to cut 
the air well, and after cleaning put the hair¬ 
spring and roller in their proper places. If 
the hairspring roller is somewhat loose, 
squeeze it a little, but not without having a 
piece of wire held loosely in the middle, or 
it is apt to break. Some slight improve¬ 
ments still remain to be made in the anchor- 
fork. If the outside of the fork reaches far 
outward, cut off enough to make the bank¬ 
ing just safe and poise the inner end by filing 
and shaping it into a small bar from close 
behind the fork-pin to the anchor (pallets). 
Should the extreme inner ends of the fork 
be very stiff, file them straighter, but never 
touch the inner edges, and carefully remove 
all burr. Sometimes when they are too 
steep, they are apt to catch the roller-pin 
from behind. In fine Swiss watches these 
ends are hollowed out. 

Last, but not least, the mainspring and 
barrel requires attention. See that the arbor 
has the necessary play and how many 
rounds the mainspring makes—generally 3 
rounds, and if so, span the ratchet wheel 
about ^4 of a whole round—just enough not 
to allow the chain to fall off. Clean the 
watch properly in the ordinary way, and if 
the job has been done conscientiously, the 
result cannot fail to give perfect satisfaction. 


ADJUSTMENT TO ISOCHRONISM. 

HE manipulation of the hairspring so 
that the long and short arcs of the bal¬ 
ance are performed in the same time. The 
theory of isochronism advanced by Dr. Rob¬ 
ert Hooke, and more commonly known as 
Hooke’s law, “ as the tension so is the force,” 
is an axiom in mechanics with which every¬ 
body is, or should be, familiar. This law 
has, like nearly all others, its exceptions, and 
it is only partially true as applied to hair¬ 
springs of watches ; “ otherwise,” says Glas¬ 
gow, “ every spring would be isochronous.” 
Pierre Le Roy says that there is in every 
spring of a sufficient extent a certain length 
where all the vibrations, long or short, great 
or small, are isochronous, and that this length 
being secured, if you shorten the spring the 
great vibrations will be quicker than the 
small ones; if, on the contrary, it is length¬ 
ened, the small arcs will be performed in less 
time than the great ones. Glasgow says 
that a hairspring, of whatever form, to be 


isochronous must satisfy the following con¬ 
ditions : Its center of gravity must always 
be on the axis of the balance, and it must 
expand and contract in the vibrations con¬ 
centrically with that axis. When these con¬ 
ditions are secured in a properly made spring 
it will possess the quality of isochronism, 
that is, its force will increase in proportion 
to the tension, and it will not exert any 
lateral pressure on the pivots. 

The recognized authorities conflict con¬ 
siderably in their various theories in regard 
to adjustment to isochronism, and partic¬ 
ularly in regard to the length of spring. 
Immisch says that mere length has nothing 
to do with isochronism. Glasgow contends 
that length has everything to do with it and 
that a spring too short, whatever its form, 
would make the short arcs of the balance 
vibration be performed in a less time than 
the long arcs, and a spring too long would 
have just the contrary effect. Charles 
Frodsham advanced the theory that every 
length of spring has its isochronous point. 
Britten declares that the length is all-impor¬ 
tant. That a good length of spring for one 
variety of escapement is entirely unfitted 
for another variety. Saunier says that the 
discussion of the question whether short 
springs are preferable to long ones is a mere 
waste of time and can result in no good. 
In horology everything must be relative. 
Whatever be the escapement under consid¬ 
eration, it requires neither a long nor a short 
hairspring, but one that is suited to its nat¬ 
ure and mode of action, that is to say, the 
length must bear a definite relation to the 
extent of the arcs of vibration, etc. 

Owing to this conflict of opinion, it is 
advisable that the student read the various 
arguments set forth in the works referred to 
above and form his own conclusions. 


ABOUT GAUGES. 

N working in a new pinion when the 
old one is at hand, no trouble will be 
experienced as to height, and when the old 
pinion is removed from the wheel, all the 
measurements can be taken from it by the 
millimeter gauge. This gauge is much lighter 
in its action than the douzieme gauge, and 
altogether more suitable, having finer and 
cleaner divisions. About two-tenths of a 
millimeter are equal to one douzieme. The 
jaws of this tool are frequently not fitted 
closely, and on account of their hardness can 





7 ° 


WATCH REPAIRING. 


only be corrected by grinding. A piece of 
flat brass, similar to a barrel cover, is fixed 
on an arbor and adjusted to run true in flat; 
a little emery and oil or oil-stone dust is ap¬ 
plied on each side of it. The turns having 
been put in the vise sideways, so that the 
gauge can hang freely, the jaws should be 
allowed to close on the lap. A few revolu¬ 
tions will grind both jaws true and perfectly 
parallel. After this operation it is not un¬ 
likely that the pointer will pass beyond the 
index; if so, the end of the pointer must be 
gripped in the vise, with a piece of card in¬ 
serted between it and the vise, to prevent 
marking, and pulled gently, until it indicates 
correctly. _ 

ANNEALING AND HARDENING. 

OPPER, brass, German silver, and sim¬ 
ilar metals are hardened by hammer¬ 
ing, rolling, or wire drawing, and are softened 
by being heated red hot and plunged in cold 
water. Copper, by being alloyed with tin, 
may be made so hard that cutting instru¬ 
ments may be made from it. This is the 
old process of hardening copper, which is so 
often claimed to be one of the lost arts, and 
which would be very useful if we did not 
have in steel a material which is far less 
costly and far better fitted for the making of 
edge tools. _ 

WATCH REPAIRING. 

LTHOUGH broaching in the mandrel 
is not a bad way of opening a hole, it 
is always better to open it to nearly the re¬ 
quired size by running a cutter through it, if 
the hole is large enough to admit of this 
being done; but, as these cutters are easily 
broken, in consequence of their being so 
small, turning out holes is not often resorted 
to by watch jobbers. 

The half-round or triangular pieces of 
steel sold with a mandrel to make cutters of 
are seldom made from the best steel, and 
are only fit for cutters for rough turning, and 
making a cutter of one of these involves 
considerable labor; therefore it is much 
better to make one into a cutter-holder by 
drilling a good-sized hole in one end of it, 
and after broaching the hole, fitting several 
pieces of small steel to the hole (they should 
be turned and fitted accurately); these pieces 
are easily made into cutters of any size or 
shape required, and if one gets broken it is 
easily replaced. 

Watch jobbers do not seem to like the 


mandrel, but the more they use it the better 
will their work be done, and it will certainly 
save their time to do so. If the fusee re¬ 
quires new holes and the center wheel holes 
are right or have been renewed, the teeth of 
the great wheel will often be found worn 
and sometimes bent from the wheel having 
been softened in gilding—the teeth being 
much longer than is necessary and the 
spaces cut square at the bottom—and in the 
case of the teeth being worn from the center 
pinion being a wrong size and the depth too 
shallow. A new wheel would, of course, be 
the proper remedy for this ; but if this may 
not be done, the teeth should be hammered 
carefully; the depth tried in the depthing- 
tool, and when the stopping in the pillar 
plate or bar is pushed out, the depth marked 
across the hole. The hole should then be 
drawn until the mark is in the center of it 
and a new stopping put in. The great 
wheel depth should always be as deep as 
possible; it is a mistake to make it shallow, 
because it will then run more smoothly. 
But, supposing the lower fusee hole does not 
require any alteration, and a new top hole 
only is required (a repair often wanted), if 
the old stopping in the plate is removed or 
—in the case of a -plate watch—the fusee 
piece is broached large enough for a stop¬ 
ping, if a piece of brass is broached to nearly 
the size of the pivot and then turned to fit 
the hole in the plate of fusee piece and riv¬ 
eted ; if the hole is again broached to fit the 
pivot and the fusee put into its place in the 
frame, the chances are twenty to one against 
its being upright; whereas if the method I 
have described, of pegging the lower hole 
and turning out the upper one, be adopted, 
the upright of the fusee will be secured with¬ 
out further trouble ; and, if it is not perfectly 
upright, the stop-work is most likely to be 
wrong, and the acdetantant will require bend¬ 
ing to get it to act in the steel wheel, which, 
of course, is botching. 

If the barrel holes are worn, and the bar¬ 
rel is, as it often is, out of truth, it may be 
better to put in a new stopping in the barrel 
and get it true by the cover; but generally 
it will be sufficient to close the holes by lay¬ 
ing the barrel on a small round stake and 
hammering up the boss from the inside of 
the barrel. This boss is usually left large, 
and if it is hammered on the outside edge 
the hole will be closed, when it can be made 
to fit the pivot by broaching with a round 
broach, and it will be good enough to last 






THE BREGUET SPRING. 


7 1 


for years; this repair is often an improve¬ 
ment, as it lessens the rubbing surfaces of 
the shoulders of the barrel-arbor pivots. If 
the hole in the barrel cover is too large 
and the cover too small, from the expansion 
of the barrel from the breaking of strong 
mainsprings, the best remedy is a new cover, 
which any one can make without any telling ; 
but in the case of a new cover being made, 
the barrel is not likely to be true, and the 
cover should be snapped into the barrel be¬ 
fore it is brought to the right thickness; if 
when the end-shake of the arbor is adjusted, 
the arbor and barrel are put into the calipers, 
it will be seen if the barrel is true—if not, 
the cover should be marked on the high 
side, taken off and turned until it fits easily, 
and then hammered carefully on the outer 
edge of the side that is marked until it fits 
the groove in the barrel; and this, if done 
the required amount, will bring the barrel 
true. When a barrel cover is hammered on 
one side until it is out of round, the barrel 
and cover should be marked in order that 
the cover may always occupy the same place. 


THE BREGUET SPRING. 

HERE is no doubt that the Breguet or 
overcoil spring is one of the best forms, 
in fact the best form, of spring under certain 
conditions; and if the watch be of such a 
character in construction and finish as to 
justify or require its application—this fact 
being known and acknowledged gives a 
character to a watch worthy of imitation, 
and therefore it is something for a manu¬ 
facturer or agent to point to—and as the 
action of the spring is easy and uniform the 
retailer or shopkeeper is taken with it and 
points to it in his turn as an excellence in 
the cheap watch he is recommending to his 
customer, and in which he probably believes. 
As to his consideration for the comfort or 
convenience of the jobber into whose hands 
the watch may afterward come for repairs, 
the thing is too absurd to be thought of; his 
business is to sell the watch. The Swiss 
have hitherto been the chief sinners in this 
affair of Breguet springs, and as they claim 
that great man Breguet as their countryman, 
they may be excused for having a prejudice 
in favor of his invention ; but it is useless to 
rail against the manufacturers of any article 
for making what they can sell. However 
great the excellence of a spring having the 
inherent quality of giving isochronal vibra¬ 


tions to the balance of a fine watch, it is no 
help to a watch with machine-made pivots 
and jewel holes, and such escapements as 
these watches generally have, especially when 
the overcoil is badly and unscientifically 
made so that each move of the index pins 
gives the spring a different form. But it is 
the business of the watch jobber to take 
things as they are, and to that end he should 
learn to make the best of them. 

The manipulation of the balance spring is 
really the most important function of the 
watch jobber, and but for the fact that these 
springs can be bought ready to his hand, he 
would be under the necessity of learning to 
handle them with greater certainty and less 
trouble to himself. It is rather humiliating 
to be obliged to acknowledge that nearly 
all the balance springs applied to English 
watches are of foreign make. 

Although the watch jobber is an all-round 
man, he ought to be able to pin in a spring flat 
and true and to correct or repair an injured 
one, as, no matter how perfect all the other 
parts of the watch may be, if the spring is 
bent or constrained in its action no correct 
time will be obtained from the watch. A 
flat or spiral spring should never be larger 
than half the diameter of the balance, that 
is, if the spring has the coils close together, 
such as are generally in use at present; but 
if a new spring is required for a job watch it 
must be of a size to suit the stud and index 
pins, and therefore if larger than this pre¬ 
scribed size the coils should be more open. 
If the old spring is only distorted, and not 
broken, a ready way of finding the strength 
of the new one is by lifting a small weight 
attached to the inner coil of the spring while 
the other end is held in the tweezers. This 
weight should consist of a small disc of brass 
having a pin about an inch long projecting 
through its center; the pin should be tapered 
so as to make it as light as possible at the 
top, and have a small hook filed in it close 
to the disc sufficient to hold the inner coil 
of the spring while the weight is being lifted. 
It is easier to judge of the strength correctly 
if the weight be sufficient to draw the spring 
down the whole length of the pin, and for 
this purpose a few thin pieces of brass, that 
will drop over the pin and increase the 
weight to what is required, should be kept 
ready ; by this means the strength of the old 
spring is easily gauged and a new one of the 
same strength as easily chosen. A very 
common and very uncertain method of find- 




7 2 


BALANCE. 


ing the strength of a spring is by lifting, in 
a similar manner to what I have just de¬ 
scribed, the balance itself; the almost use¬ 
lessness of this method is seen when we 
know that the diameter of the balance has 
as much to do with the time of the watch as 
its weight, and the diameter in this case 
counts for nothing. A spring should be 
chosen that will be rather smaller than the 
circle of the stud hole and index pins; that 
is, the spring should look small when the 
balance is at rest, as a spring this size has 
more freedom of the coils or at those parts 
of the coils that lie between the stud and 
the balance staff, and therefore assists in 
quickening the short arcs of the balance. 

I think it is pretty well known that almost 
all ordinary watches go slower in the short 
arcs of the balance than in the long ones, 
or slower when the watch is hanging up than 
when it is lying down (this is especially the 
case with full-plate watches, and they, as a 
rule, have the balance springs too large). 
A spring collet should be as small as possi¬ 
ble, and the inner coil of the spring just 
large enough to be free of the collet. If the 
hole in the collet is not straight, that is, 
tangential, it should be broached until it is 
so, and from the side from which the spring 
is inserted, as, if this is done, it will not be 
found necessary to bend the spring to suit 
a hole that is drilled anyhow; and, if the 
spring has to be unpinned, it must be bent 
again to suit another position. 

If, when the spring is pinned to the collet, 
it stands away from it at the points where 
the pin is inserted, it will be useless to at¬ 
tempt to bring it closer to the collet by bend¬ 
ing it on the collet; therefore, it must be 
unpinned, and the eye bent in a little, so as 
to get the center true. When the spring 
runs true, the collet can be put on an arbor, 
and there is then very little trouble in get¬ 
ting it flat. I am now speaking of hardened 
and tempered springs, or those springs, that 
are hardened by chemical process, and are 
more difficult to handle: soft springs can be 
bent to any shape or form. Some years ago 
a prize essayist on the balance spring gave 
a few diagrams of springs, showing how they 
grew shorter as they grew older, and the way 
these springs were made to do was by a pro¬ 
cess known as white throating, that is, by 
scraping with a graver about an inch of the 
inside of the outer end of the spring to re¬ 
duce its strength. This is complete botch¬ 
ing, and the workman who resorts to it can 


have no respect for himself, and need not 
look for respect from others. 


A GOOD WAY TO CLEAN A MAIN¬ 
SPRING. 

HERE are several methods for cleaning 
and mounting a mainspring, but the fol¬ 
lowing ranks with the best in use among good 
watchmakers. Let us suppose we have a 
watch that has run twelve months or more. 
After taking the watch down, first examine 
the mainspring by taking off the cap of the 
barrel, carefully removing the arbor, then 
holding the barrel in the thumb and fingers 
of the left hand, lift out the inner end of the 
spring with small round nose pliers, holding 
the thumb and fingers in such a manner as 
to allow the spring to uncoil itself from the 
barrel in a gentle manner into the hand, and 
if sound and of the right strength, proceed 
to clean it with a piece of domestic (a clean 
soft rag is preferable, as it is free from starch 
and other foreign matter calculated to injure 
steel). Holding the cloth or rag in the left 
hand and the spring just as it has come out 
of the barrel in your right, gently move it 
back and forth, holding two or three of the 
coils between the thumb, first and second 
fingers, pressing the coils slightly over with 
the ball of the thumb (not nails), so as not to 
materially change the natural curvature of 
the spring in any way during the operation. 
In this way the entire spring can be cleaned, 
with the exception of a small portion of the 
inner coil, which can be cleaned by using a 
corner of the rag, applied with a piece of 
pegwood, or by a slight brushing with a brush 
used for this purpose. A first-class spring 
(and no watchmaker should use any other if 
he values time and reputation) thus cleaned, 
with proper space in the barrel, and with the 
arbor free, of proper size, and a liberal appli¬ 
cation of watch oil, but not flooded with it, 
turned up to its proper capacity, will give 
out its full force for one or two years, at 
least, without breaking, rusting, or becoming 
gummy and foul. 


BALANCE. 

HREE things cause a loss of the bal¬ 
ance velocity, viz.: the resistance of 
unlocking the escape wheel, the friction of 
the pivots in the holes, and the stress of the 
reciprocating spring on the pivots. If the 






WOOD ROD AND LEAD BOB FOR PENDULUM. 


73 


mass of the balance is unbalanced, the pivots 
will suffer an additional stress from the cen¬ 
trifugal force in revolving. 


PRACTICAL METHOD FOR LENGTH¬ 
ENING A BALANCE SPRING. 

HE repairer is occasionally compelled to 
regulate a watch with too short a balance 
spring, because the owner does not want to 
pay for a new spring, or else, if a country 
watchmaker, he may not happen to have the 
exact size on hand. Let us imagine that he 
has withdrawn the spring to its utmost, and 
still the watch advances. Apparently some¬ 
thing is to be done, and in this extremity 
the most objectionable means are employed. 
A repairer recently asked the question in a 
German horological paper, and received all 
kinds of replies. One recommended to dip 
the spring in acid; another to scrape it 
thinner with a graver; and still another to 
make it weaker by grinding with an oil-stone. 
The most heroic treatment was proposed 
lately in another horological paper. The 
scientist says : “ When I find that a spring is 
too short and cannot be made longer by 
pinning, I employ a method that will inva¬ 
riably do it: I make the balance a trifle 
heavier with tin solder. I cut off two very 
small pellets of solder, put a little soldering 
fluid on the lower side of the balance, lay a 
pellet of the solder upon it, and then hold 
the balance rim on the edge of the alcohol 
flame until the solder has run. 

“It does not require a great heat to do 
this, and it suffices to hold the rim on the 
edge of the flame, whereby it is prevented 
at the same time that the cylinder or one of 
the pivots is annealed, by carelessness. I 
then make the opposite side heavier in the 
same manner, and finally buff the rim, after 
which no trace of the work can be seen.” 

For what use, we ask, are the prize essays 
“on the balance spring,” by Excelsior, Im- 
misch, Sandoz, and others, who have wasted 
their talent and ill-spent lives by writing on 
timing and isochronism? Make a pyre of 
their writings ! 

A Mr. Barthelemy, of St. Menehouldt, a 
skillful watchmaker, recently published his 
method for obtaining satisfactory results in 
the Revue Chronometrique. He says: 

“ My method, which I have employed with 
excellent results for the last fifteen years, is, 
that in place of the graver I use a burnisher, 
with which I rub over the balance spring, 


the thickness of which is reduced by this 
means ; its pores are closed and the quality 
of the spring is not whatever impaired; be¬ 
sides this, it is easy, with a spring treated in 
this manner, to restore it to its original coils. 

“ It requires only a moderate amount of 
practice to accomplish the purpose, and it is 
only necessary to hold the spring flat. I 
made the first trial with a spring that ad¬ 
vanced 20 minutes per day. After I had 
smoothed a length of about 3 centimeters 
with the burnisher, I had produced a differ¬ 
ence of 40 minutes—that is, the spring now 
retarded 20 minutes, while formerly it had 
advanced 20 minutes.” 

The country repairer who may occasionally 
be called on to do this, might by practice 
seek to acquire the necessary skill. 


WOOD ROD AND LEAD BOB FOR 
PENDULUM. 

CHEAP and good compensated pen¬ 
dulum may be made with a wood rod 
and lead bob. For a seconds pendulum, 
the rod should be of thoroughly well sea¬ 
soned, straight grained deal, 44^2 inches 
long, measuring from the top of the free 
part of the suspension spring to the bottom 
of the bob, and of an oval section .75 inch 
by .5 inch. This size of rod allows of sound 
fixing for the attachments at the ends. A 
slit for the suspension spring is cut in a brass 
cap fitting over the top of the rod, to which 
it is secured by two pins. A bit of thin 
brass tube is fitted to the rod where it is 
embraced by the crutch. The rating screw, 
.25 inch in diameter, is fixed to a short piece 
of sheet brass, .75 of an inch wide. A saw 
cut is made at the bottom of the pendulum 
rod, into which the brass plate is inserted, 
and fixed with a couple of pins. Wooden 
rods require to be coated with something to 
render them impervious to the atmosphere. 
They are generally varnished or polished, 
but painting them answers the purpose well. 
Mr. Latimer Clark recommends saturating 
them with melted paraffine. The bob, 2^ 
inches in diameter and 11 inches high, with 
a hole just large enough to go freely over 
the wood rod, rests on a washer above the 
rating point. 

Many pendulums made on this plan have 
been all that could be desired. Several cor¬ 
respondents have borne testimony to their 
high efficiency, but nearly all say that the 
bob, 14 inches, advised in a former article, 






74 


CONICAL PIVOTS. 


is too long for a seconds pendulum, and a 
length of 12, ii, io, and even 8 inches is ad¬ 
vised. For this reason, 11 inches may be 
taken as a mean. 

It is essential that the grain of a wood 
pendulum should be perfectly straight, for 
if the grain is not straight the rod is likely 
to bend, causing the clock to go irregularly. 


CLOSE OBSERVATION NECESSARY. 

LOSE observation is necessary when 
taking down a watch for repairs. If it 
has a strong mainspring and a bad vibration 
and the train free, it may be assumed that 
the escapement is at fault. A very common 
fault by which the vibration is spoiled is too 
much run on the pallets, and the escape¬ 
ment pitched too deep ; all run is a serious 
evil, and no more than sufficient for freedom 
should be allowed. 

If, on closing the banking-pins, the pallets 
escape freely and the roller and lever are 
not free, first try if the guard-pin is free with 
the banking closer, and has fair shake when 
the end of the lever is moved. If tight, the 
guard-pin must be bent back, or the roller 
edge turned away and repolished to give the 
guard-pin freedom, care being taken that the 
pin, though free, is not so free as to pass 
the roller or to stick; reducing the size of 
the roller insures its safety, though an im¬ 
pression to the contrary seems to prevail 
among some foreign makers of common 
lever escapements, judging by the large 
radius of roller outside the ruby pin, which 
is seen in all cheap levers of English, Swiss, 
and German make. Both time and trouble 
are saved by making the guard roller as 
small as possible. True theory requires it 
smaller than the roller-pin radius, hence the 
double roller escapement. 

Should the ruby pin be unable to leave 
the lever notch, with the motion of the lever 
curtailed to that given it by the pressure of 
the pallets only, the necessary freedom must 
be obtained by more legitimate means than 
wasting the motive force in pallet motion 
and extra locking friction—an evil, in its 
best form, to be kept within the smallest 
possible limits in all escapements. If the 
lever notch is very deep, removing sufficient 
with a piece of oil-stone will give freedom, 
but much care is desirable in making a rad¬ 
ical alteration, and repairers should think 
twice before removing parts they cannot 
restore. Putting the roller on a wire and 


warming it sufficiently to allow the ruby pin 
to be moved nearer the center of the roller, 
to make a more shallow depth, and, if the 
pin is circular, replacing it with one flattened 
on the surface, will allow the pin to leave 
the lever notch with more freedom ; and ex¬ 
periments with a brass pin in the roller 
should also precede any serious alterations. 
Exchanging a small roller pin for a large 
oval or flattened one, will diminish the labor 
required in unlocking and improve some es¬ 
capements by changing the engaging friction 
at the line of centers to a disengaging action. 


THE ROUNDING-UP TOOL. 

HIS most ingenious tool is one of the 
most useful to watch repairers. By its aid 
the wheel may be almost instantly reduced 
in diameter; corrected, if out of round, or 
have the form of its teeth altered as may be 
required. The cutters are a little over half 
a circle and terminate in a guide. While 
one end of the guide meets the cutter, the 
other angles a little, so that instead of meet¬ 
ing the other extremity of the cutter, when 
the circle is completed, it leaves a space 
equal to the pitch of the wheel to be cut. 
By this means, after the cutter has operated 
on a space, the wheel is led forward one 
tooth by the time the cutter arbor has com¬ 
pleted its revolution. Some little practice 
is required to select exactly the cutter re¬ 
quired. Care must be taken not to select 
one too thick, or the teeth will of course be 
made too thin, and the wheel probably bent. 
When the guide is adjusted to the pitch, it 
will be well to see that it enters the space 
properly before rotating the tool quickly. 
The wheel should be fixed firmly, but not 
too tightly, between the centers, which 
should rest well on the shoulders of the 
pinion. The rest piece for the wheel should 
be as large as possible to keep the wheel 
from bending, to give it firmness and to in¬ 
sure a clean cut. 


CONICAL PIVOTS. 

T HE cone should be an easy curve 
tapering off into the pivot proper, 
which runs in the hole; this part must be 
perfectly straight and parallel. The pivot 
having been turned to a little over the re¬ 
quired size, its end is laid on a bed formed 
in a manner of the turns. Every time the 
work is examined the bed of the runner 
must be cleared and the runner adjusted to 







THE MOTIVE FORCE IN WATCHES. 


75 


a slightly different length, so that it does not 
bear on the same part of the pivot. If this 
is neglected, the pivot is sure to be marked. 
A soft steel polisher, made to suit the pivot, 
is then used with either oil-stone dust or red- 
stuff. It should be used with a backward 
and forward as well as a rolling motion, till 
the pivot is reduced so that it will just fall 
off the hole. The pivot is then finished 
with a very smooth burnisher and oil. 

Instead of the soft steel polisher, some 
prefer to use a hard steel burnisher rough¬ 
ened, or a piece of lead with emery, which 
makes an equally good pivot. For rounding 
the end of the pivot, a thin-edged runner, to 
allow the end of the pivot to come through, 
is used. The pivot is rounded by passing 
the burnisher from the body of the pivot 
over the end. If the burnisher is used//w« 
the point toward the body of the pivot, a 
burr may be formed. There is a little differ¬ 
ence of opinion as to the proper direction of 
the stroke to be imparted. Opinions will 
differ. _ 

THE MOTIVE FORCE IN WATCHES. 

OLLOWING a recent controversy in 
an English horological paper, a contri¬ 
bution from the pen of Mr. Oscar Perret, of 
St. Imier, in the Journal Suisse d'Horlogerie, 
will be read with interest: “ It should ap¬ 
pear that this question [the motive force in 
watches] were worthy of meriting the atten¬ 
tion of all those engaged in watchmaking; 
nevertheless, this is far from being so, be¬ 
cause it is the most neglected part, to such 
an extent, even, that many watchmakers do 
not trouble themselves at all to study the 
important works which this force produces, 
nor the parts that consume a portion of it. 
It appears that the mounter has no other 
duty to perform than that of imprisoning the 
spring within the barrel, lubricating it with 
a little oil of an inferior quality, without fur¬ 
ther troubling himself whether it runs with¬ 
out being cramped, or whether its force can 
develop as it should. This is due to the 
fact that the motive force labors under one 
disadvantage. Its motions cannot be seen 
and studied like those of the other movable 
parts; were this so, one can be certain that 
it would be the object of greater care, and it 
would be more highly esteemed. 

“ It is rarely the case that the mainspring 
is examined; this fact is left to the good 
faith of the spring manufacturers, who may 
employ either steel of a bad quality or badly 


tempered; nor is any rigorous exactitude 
exerted as regards the height or thickness of 
blade, etc. Such as the spring is, it is de¬ 
livered to the mounter, whose duty simply 
is to put it in place, regardless of the condi¬ 
tion in which he receives it. It is not as¬ 
tonishing, therefore, that the greater part of 
these springs cannot but very imperfectly 
comply with the functions they are to dis¬ 
charge, and they become a source of imper¬ 
fection to the watch, even when all its other 
parts are in fair order. 

“We have said that the mainspring per¬ 
forms a very important part; it produces a 
force which must be preserved as nearly 
intact as possible. The barrel being actu¬ 
ated by this force must, in its rotary motion, 
actuate an entire mechanism, and its energy 
experiences a diminution from one wheel to 
the other, so that when it arrives at the es¬ 
capement a large part of the original force 
has been consumed by the many frictions of 
the depthing and pivots. Theory can with 
precision calculate this loss. To this may 
be still added the imperfections of construc¬ 
tion, bad proportions, etc., which augments 
the intensity of the frictions, and conse¬ 
quently requires more force.* 

“ In order that the mainspring may comply 
with its functions passably, it must be capa¬ 
ble of exerting a uniform traction force for 
at least twenty-four hours; and it would 
thereby favor the regularity of the amplitude 
of the balance vibrations, which is very im¬ 
portant for the adjustment. But experience 
has taught us that it is not always an easy 
thing to attain this result, because it is well 
known that the manufacturers of steel have 
not yet been able to produce it with a reg¬ 
ular force, and, consequently, springs with¬ 
out a uniform action in the same conditions 
are the result. Nothing, indeed, is more in¬ 
teresting than experiments on their action, 
to prove the irregularities produced by them, 
as far as their traction is concerned, even 
with springs of the same height and thick¬ 
ness of blade; this irregularity is a great 
defect. 

“ I would like to call the attention of young 
watchmakers to one point: it is better in 
order to have more force to augment the 
breadth of the blade rather than its thick¬ 
ness, because less is lost of development, 

* Experiments instituted have demonstrated that 
the train (wheels, pivots, depthings), when in proper 
condition and lubricated with fresh oil, absorbs 
about 20 per cent, of the motive force. 




7 0 


ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. 


and the traction is much more regular from 
the beginning to the end of the performance 
—that means that the differences are not so 
great in the extreme^; we have been able to 
observe this fact in a number of instances, 
and it is easy to prove the truth of the asser¬ 
tion by instituting experiments. 

“ The friction produced between the coil 
blades during the activity of the spring 
is also of great importance, and becomes 
so much more injurious as the spring is 
out of truth, that is to say, when it un¬ 
folds to one side. It is fairly difficult to 
ascertain the origin of this, and the in¬ 
quirer frequently loses much valuable time 
in ascertaining it. In the common watch, 
where the price does not, naturally, permit 
any very exhaustive inquiry, much could 
nevertheless be done toward ameliorating this 
evil. 

“ The barrel must be free upon its arbor, 
like any other movable piece in the watch ; 
the spring must be unconditionally free to 
develop with the greatest ease. The pivot 
holes and spring must be lubricated with a 
suitable oil of good quality. The repairer 
will frequently find a bad oil which rusts the 
steel and produces very injurious friction. 
One grave error very often found is that the 
core is too large. 

“ We might say much on the question of 
the stop-work, because it must be acknowl¬ 
edged that many watchmakers do not at all 
inquire into the utility and duty of this little 
mechanism. It is often the case that re¬ 
pairers take it out altogether because they 
do not understand its functions. The stop- 
work has its well-defined utility, if it is kept 
in good order, and especially if it is made to 
comply with its functions, to wit, of utilizing 
the turns which give the greatest equality in 
the tractive power. By barrels for which 
no stop-work is used, different stop systems 
are employed, and they are oftenest in bad 
condition, either by the space they occupy, 
the little quantity of solidity which they pos¬ 
sess, or the disagreeable friction produced by 
them. We have been able to observe fre¬ 
quently that in many cases the collar-stop¬ 
ping contrivance hinders the spring from 
unfolding; although certain kinds of collars 
do not produce this effect, and thus enjoy an 
advantage over other kinds. 

“ As regards the quantity of force to be 
employed, there are laws governing this 
question in a rational manner. Generally 
sneaking, there is more force than is neces¬ 


sary, but by reason of the want of care this 
excess is completely absorbed. 

“It is often asserted that the Americans 
use springs which are too strong. It is nec¬ 
essary to do them this justice, however, that 
their springs are proportioned to the barrel, 
and that if they employ large barrels their 
trains and escapements are in the same pro¬ 
portion. One difference to be noticed is 
that they have employed a much smaller 
but much thicker balance than we. In 
Switzerland the principle governs that the 
watch must go with the least possible force. 
It is an old principle which exerts its full 
value, especially for fine grade watches ; but 
when it concerns watches ‘ by the thou¬ 
sand,’ which must be manufactured at a 
very low price, the question is no longer the 
same. We must admit that the Americans 
have abandoned this principle for a very 
simple reason : Their watches, as well as our 
own, possess imperfections which would 
cause them to stop, and, above all, to go 
badly. Now, it must be acceded that these 
defects are compensated to a certain extent 
by the resistance of the motive power, which 
is much stronger than in our watches.” 


BROKEN BALANCE PIVOT. 

F a balance pivot is broken I generally 
replace it by a new staff, as I think 
that by far a better way than to drill and put 
in a new pivot, as it is nine chances out of 
ten that the job is not done without some 
harm to the watch. I can take a blank staff 
and turn up and finish the pivots in less time 
than I could drill and pivot, and I always 
feel satisfied with my job. Of course there 
are always cases where we have to pivot and 
then make the best of it. In the train 
wheels I always pivot, as there is less wear 
and tear and more stock to work on. 


ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. 

NE law governing the pendulum is this: 
The action of gravity or the mutual 
attraction of bodies varies with their masses, 
and inversely as the square of their distances. 
Following from this, a pendulum will vibrate 
seconds only in a given place. Our standard 
of measurement is taken from a pendulum 
vibrating seconds in a vacuum at the level 
of the sea. It also follows that the further 
a pendulum is removed from the center of 





WATCH MAINSPRING 


77 


the earth the less it will be attracted in its 
descent toward the vertical. This explains 
why a pendulum loses on being transferred 
from the sea level to the mountain, or from 
one of the earth’s poles toward the equator, 
as the earth is a spheroid slightly flattened 
at the poles. 


WATCH MAINSPRING. 

ERY little is generally said in the hor- 
ological press on the subject of main- 
springing ; while some writers appear to have 
“ isochronism ” on the brain, others treat ad 
nauseam of the pallet draw and locking, 
while mainspringing is but occasionally men¬ 
tioned, and treated with a step-parent’s affec¬ 
tion. We recently read in a horological 
publication where the writer advised to sub¬ 
stitute the hook on the barrel for one on the 
spring; not to make it of steel, but of the 
softest and best of iron ; for instance, an 
American clock pendulum rod or a horseshoe 
nail. To use iron, because it is more easily 
and more firmly riveted, and easier to cut off 
and finish. 

These are apparently weighty reasons, 
although not many practical watchmakers 
would agree with the writer in substituting a 
hook on the barrel for that on. the spring in 
a watch with fusee and chain. The trial 
has occasionally been made, but the inevi¬ 
table result is that the first time the chain 
breaks the barrel is bulged out on the side, 
caused by the recoil of the spring against the 
hook, and in all probability ruined beyond 
redemption. He next recommended that 
the workman should always shape the hook 
on the spring and polish its face before it is 
put in the barrel. This style of work may 
be possible to do, but it is certainly neither 
practical nor customary. 

A practical method of fitting this kind of 
hook would be about as follows: 

A piece of soft iron is held in a pin vise 
and filed to fit the hole in the barrel, round or 
square, whichever it may be, giving it as little 
taper as possible ; pass the wire so fitted into 
the hole in the barrel from the outside, in 
giving it the same slant as the hole, and 
make a scratch with a sharp point across it 
and on the inside of the barrel; withdraw 
the wire and turn it end for end in the vise, 
bringing the end faces of the jaws even with 
the scratch. You now place this vise, with 
the wire in it, in a perpendicular position in 
the bench vise; first shorten the wire and 


then proceed to fit it to the hole in the main¬ 
spring, which has been previously punched, 
countersunk and pointed, as already de¬ 
scribed, allowing the jaws of the pin vise to 
act as a gauge for the scratch made on the 
wire, remove the wire from the pin vise and 
grip it firmly in the left side of the bench 
vise, close up, but not so as to injure the 
part which is to form the hook. 

Put the spring in its place and rivet up 
carefully and solidly; have the spring so 
countersunk as not to permit any of the rivet 
to project above the surface of the spring. 
Take it out of the vise and cut off, leaving 
just enough to form the hook. Try if the 
hook fits by putting it backward into the hole 
in the barrel from the outside, for it is pos¬ 
sible to distort its shape in riveting, etc. 
Being satisfied, and not having the hook 
excessively long, wind it in and ship the 
hook. 

You now take the barrel between the 
thumb and point of the middle finger and 
slap it on the bench, first on one side, then 
the other, till you see that the hook is well 
home to its place. Put the arbor and cover 
—presuming that the spring was oiled before 
winding it in. All that remains to be done 
now is to finish the hook outside the barrel, 
which is done by carefully filing it down till 
you come close to the gilded side or edge 
of the barrel; you then take a piece of thin 
writing paper and lay over it, and go on 
filing both paper and hook together till you 
touch, but not deface, the barrel. It is well 
now to grip the square of the arbor in a pin 
vise, and set the spring up to test the effi¬ 
ciency of the hook, and, 'if possible, to force 
it further through the barrel, in which case 
you repeat the filing through a fresh piece 
of paper. You now finish the job by pass¬ 
ing a clean flat burnisher over it a few 
times, also through a piece of paper. I 
consider it quite impossible for a hook on 
the spring that is properly fitted to fail to 
hold securely. 

It is easily seen that the hook on the 
spring is preferable to having it on the bar¬ 
rel, because box chronometers of all nations 
have it on the hook. We may readily con¬ 
jecture that when we see the hook of a watch 
with fusee and chain altered from the spring 
to the barrel, that it was the work of one 
who was either too lazy or incompetent to 
do the job, but it is not to be accepted as 
evidence that the hook-on-the-barrel style is 
more reliable. 




7 8 


IS THE STOP-WORK INDISPENSABLE. 


SCAPE WHEELS OF SWISS 
WATCHES. 

N the case of a very bad wheel it would 
be much easier to change, than to at¬ 
tempt to correct it; there is such facility now 
for doing this—wheels of very good quality 
can be got for such a low price, and in such 
a variety of sizes and heights, that it is rarely 
a difficult matter to get one of a correct size. 
If the country watchmaker has no large 
stock on hand, and must send for a new 
wheel, it is always best to turn a sink in a 
piece of brass in the mandrel, as a gauge for 
size; and if the wheel is not sent, a notch 
cut for the height also. The removal of the 
wheel from the pinion should be done on a 
pinion-riveting stake, in a hole that just fits 
the pinion loosely; a pointed hollow punch, 
preferably of brass, fitting freely over the 
pivot, or in the hollow of the rivets, should 
be used and a light hammer. The size of 
the hole in the wheel is the next considera¬ 
tion ; it will most probably be considerably 
smaller than the old. The common way of 
opening this hole is to broach it, and as the 
wheel as obtained from the material dealer 
is generally too hard to broach, it is usually 
put on a wire, and the wire in the flame of a 
lamp, until sufficiently softened. 

This is rather a risky way of doing; the 
wheel is liable to be got out of flat, or broken 
in the operation; a far safer and better plan 
is to grind out the hole without softening the 
boss. A long and soft arbor is filed length¬ 
ways ; it should not be too taper, and used 
with either fine emery or oil-stone dust, the 
wheel having previously been cemented by 
its back to either an old fourth wheel or 
some light, circular piece of brass, to protect 
the teeth and handle it by. Particular care 
should be taken not to run the arbor dry 
while grinding, but to keep it liberally sup¬ 
plied with oil, so that it does not stick. 
Should the boss be too thick, leaving insuf¬ 
ficient rivet, it can be turned down with a 
hard graver. To turn down the seat, if the 
watch is flat, would be rather a difficult mat¬ 
ter ; but if it is at all high, it can be done, 
supposing that the slot in the cylinder will ad¬ 
mit of it. The hole having been ground out 
until it fits firmly on to the pinion, it should 
be riveted lightly with a hollow steel punch, 
revolving the wheel a little between each 
blow of the hammer, which should be very 
light. Its truth in flat should be examined 
from time to time by means of the brass 
comers and straight-edge; if the riveting is 


carefully done the wheel will be true. It 
will rarely be necessary to bump the arms of 
the wheel if carefully riveted. The size of 
the punch should be such that it just goes 
easily over the shoulder of the pinion, and 
its face should be perfectly polished. 


HOW TO REPLACE A BALANCE 
STAFF. 

N the event of a broken staff a new 
one is to be made as follows:— In the 
first place the old balance staff should serve 
as a model, unless it has decidedly radical 
defects. The balance is knocked off the 
brass collar on the old staff and a rough 
staff selected of approximate dimensions. 
These-staffs are generally sold in the rough 
by material dealers, but one may be made 
by driving a steel arbor into a collet of hard 
brass. The steel should be hardened and 
tempered just sufficient to allow it to be 
turned with the graver. A screw ferrule is 
fixed to the staff, and it is mounted in the 
turns; the length is reduced to a trifle over 
the finished size, paying due attention to the 
relative size of the staff that projects both 
above and below the brass. The brass is 
then turned to fit the balance and the bal¬ 
ance spring collet, and the length is made 
right. The staff is then turned down to fit 
the hole in the roller. The pivots are then 
made, gauging the position at the shoulders 
by means of the pinion gauge, using the old 
staff to measure by. The diameter is made 
by trying in the jewel holes. The body of 
the staff is polished, as are the pivots, with 
crocus on a bell-metal burnisher, English 
workmen generally using the turn bench with 
specially made centers, but the Jacot tool is 
far more convenient. When the staff is fin¬ 
ished the balance is riveted on true, and 
should be at the precise height, so that it 
will not be necessary to use a punch to raise 
or lower it. Very careful handling and con¬ 
stant gauging are the principal requisites for 
making a balance staff; failing the former, 
the partly finished staff is likely to be broken, 
and by not paying sufficient attention to the 
latter, some part will be made too small. 


IS THE STOP-WORK INDISPENSABLE. 

HE question whether the Maltese cross 
or stop-work in medium and low grade 
watches is indispensable or not was some 
time ago debated in a meeting of watch- 





PENDULUMS. 


79 


makers in Germany. Those in favor of dis¬ 
pensing with it proposed a number of other 
devices, among which is the brace. One of 
them published his views on the matter sub¬ 
sequently in the Deutsche Uhrmacher Zeitung , 
from which we translate the following: 

“ I am not at all opposed to the stop- 
work ; on the contrary, I consider it to be 
one of the best and most secure devices—if 
well executed and hardened, and the square 
of the spring arbor upon which the stop 
sits is sufficiently long and well-conditioned. 
Every repairer, however, knows the condi¬ 
tion of the stop-work in the ordinary cheap 
watches.It is an ordinary occur¬ 

rence that already in the first four weeks the 
man who recently bought a cheap watch 
from you will come back to the shop with his 
watch over-wound, and from that time for¬ 
ward misconfidence against his time-keeper 
and yourself is fully established. Frequently, 
also, does it happen that after the mainspring 
is broken the owner also ruins the stop-work 
by winding, when he is a sort of a Jack-at- 
all-trades and tries to remedy the evil himself. 

“ Some repairers urge that when an ordinary 
brace stop is used, more springs break than 
by the use of a stop-work. I cannot say that 
this is my experience, although I have been 
a repairer for a number of years. If ever it 
should be true that the breakage of springs is 
greater by io per cent., surely watchmakers 
cannot call this a great misfortune! Nor 
does the assertion hold good that the small 
end of a spring (the brace) forms a separate 
spring power, as this force lasts barely one 
minute. 

“ Another advantage of the simple brace 
stop in the interior of the barrel is that this 
is rendered much more secure, as the cover 
does not require to be turned down and out, 
and the spring arbor can at its lower end be 
made with a nice and long pivot. All the 
repairers know how terribly shaky some bar¬ 
rels are in consequence of the pivot hole be¬ 
ing too thin in the barrel cover, and also in 
this particular a decided defect would be 
remedied. The time which the workman 
spends upon the repairing or re-making of 
the stop-work may, by the employment of the 
simple brace, be spent to a far better purpose 
upon the other parts of the watch. . . . 

For better grade watches, which have from 
the start been constructed with more care, 
and on which more time is spent in repair¬ 
ing, they may be employed profitably. 

“ Three methods are known to me for using 


the brace as a stop. The first consists in 
riveting a small piece of watch spring to the 
end of the spring and of beveling its free 
side a little; by the second, the end of the 
spring is bent into a small hook, in which is 
laid a small piece of spring with beveled 
ends; by the third, the spring is bent out¬ 
ward at a length of from 5 to 1 o millimeters 
near the end, which must be done, however, 
while the spring is red hot, so'that it will not 
break in bending. The diameter of the 
spring core can, in general, be taken as the 
length of the brace. The latter method is 
the simplest and easiest, and I have success¬ 
fully employed it for a number of years. 
The hook in the barrel is unnecessary, and a 
very small pin slightly projecting within is all 
that is required ; even this fear is not neces¬ 
sary ; simply raise a burr with a sharp graver 
on the inner side of the barrel.” 

In conclusion the writer solicits the opinion 
of other watchmakers on this question. 


THE BAROMETRICAL ERROR. 

PENDULUM is affected by the den¬ 
sity of the atmosphere, but to a degree 
that would only be of importance in a pre¬ 
cision timepiece, where all the errors are re¬ 
duced to a minimum. An increase of den¬ 
sity in the air is equivalent to reducing the 
action of gravity, while the inertia of the 
moving body remains the same. The rule 
is, that the velocity of the pendulum varies 
directly as the force of gravity and inversely 
as the inertia, and it follows then that an in¬ 
crease of density diminishes the velocity and 
shortens the time of oscillation, causing the 
clock to gain time. The barometrical error 
can be reduced to within three- or four-tenths 
of a second in twenty-four hours for each 
rise or fall of the barometer. Short axes of 
oscillation are also essential in reducing the 
barometrical error. An apparatus is some¬ 
times attached to the pendulum to assist in 
reducing the error. 


PENDULUMS. 

PENDULUM required to vibrate sec¬ 
onds, says a lecturer, must be of such 
a length as to make the distance between the 
centers of suspension and oscillation 39.14 
inches ; and it must farther satisfy the con¬ 
dition here indicated, namely, the expansion 
of steel downward must equal that of brass 
upward. The co-efficients of expansion of 






8o 


PENDULUMS. 


steel and brass are respectively 0.0000124 
and 0.0000188 per i° centigrade, and it can 
easily be shown that the smallest number of 
rods that can satisfy this condition, keeping 
the pendulum symmetrical, is nine. The ar¬ 
rangement of the rods and the mode in which 
they effect the required object need but little 
explanation. The outer steel rods are firmly 
pinned at right angles to the upper brass 
cross-piece, but they are only held loosely by 
the pins in the lowest cross-bar. This car¬ 
ries two brass rods expanding upward, and 
each pair is loosely held by pins in the same 
way. The innermost steel rod hangs from 
a pin at its upper end, passes freely through 
the lower cross-piece, and supports the pen¬ 
dulum bob by a nut at its extremity. 

The necessity for so many rods has always 
been regarded as a serious objection to this 
form of pendulum, and many attempts have 
been made to avoid the difficulty. Trough- 
ton suggested a very elegant arrangement, 
in which the four brass rods are replaced by 
two brass tubes, the five steel rods being 
joined in a manner corresponding to that 
above indicated. The bulk of the pendulum 
rod is thus diminished to a tube 0.6 of one 
inch in diameter, an important point, since 
the center of oscillation is thereby lowered, 
and a shorter pendulum can be employed. 
Zinc has a much higher expansibility than 
brass, and attention was, therefore, directed 
toward the employment of this metal. By 
increasing the length of the pendulum, and 
placing the bob some distance above the 
lower end of the pendulum, supported by a 
short cylinder of zinc, Berthoud succeeded 
in obtaining sufficient compensation with 
only two brass rods and three of steel; and, 
even with a brass cylinder in place of the 
zinc, the compensation was at times found 
to be complete. This is a compact form of 
gridiron pendulum, but long, and the excess¬ 
ive friction between the rods is a serious ob¬ 
jection. Berthoud constructed them about 
13 inches long, beating half-seconds, and the 
center of oscillation comes very near the cen¬ 
ter of the bob. 

Reid, Tiede, Jacob, Ward, Dent and 
others, invented pendulums in which zinc and 
steel are employed in conjunction, and in an 
interesting arrangement suggested long ago 
by Robert, zinc is associated with platinum 
as being at the opposite end of the scale of 
expansibility. The form adopted by Jacob 
is worthy of notice on account of its extreme 
facility of adjustment. The central rod is 


of steel, and terminates in a screw bearing 
a locking nut, which supports a rectangular 
zinc frame. A screw thread is cut on the 
upper portion of this, and a nut on it sup¬ 
ports the frame that carries the bob. As¬ 
suming the pendulum to be under or over 
compensated, it will only be necessary to ele¬ 
vate the upper screw and depress the lower, 
or vice versa, and the effective length of the 
zinc will thus be altered as required. The 
expansion of zinc being more than double 
that of steel, a single zinc rod less than the 
length of the pendulum will suffice for the 
compensation. 

The only other combination of these two 
metals that need be specially referred to is 
the pendulum employed by Dent & Co., of 
London, England, for astronomical clocks, 
in which the bob is of lead, and the steel and 
zinc are two concentric tubes, the rod also 
being of steel. A zinc tube resting on the 
rating nut supports, at its upper end, a steel 
tube by which it is enclosed; to the lower 
end of the steel is fixed, by its center, the 
lead bob covered with a brass jacket. Holes 
are drilled through the steel and zinc tubes 
in such a manner that each portion of the 
pendulum is equally influenced by thermo¬ 
metric variation. 

The pendulum by Mr. Robert, above re¬ 
ferred to, is a light platinum tube passing 
through a zinc bob and terminating in a steel 
screw, which carries the rating nut. The 
bob extends to half the height of the rod, 
and its upward expansion is sufficient to neu¬ 
tralize the downward expansion of this latter. 

Numerous other combinations of two or 
more substances have been suggested from 
time to time, but detailed reference to them 
is unnecessary since the principle of all is 
identical. J. L. Smith employed a vulcanite 
tube surrounding the lower extremity of a 
steel rod, in a manner somewhat analogous 
to Berthoud’s pendulum, only that the tube 
passed within the (copper) bob; Ley used 
zinc and glass similarly arranged, and Cal- 
laud proposed a combination in which steel, 
brass, and platinum (wire) are used. The 
brass tube resting on the timing nut supports 
a plate at its upper end, through which pass 
two screws attached to the extremities of a 
platinum wire. This passing round a groove 
in the pendulum bob raises it as the brass 
tube expands, and the adjustment for com¬ 
pensation somewhat resembles that of Jacob’s 
pendulum. Benzenberg’s pendulum, as mod¬ 
ified by Kater, consists of a lead tube trav- 


RULES GOVERNING COMPENSATION PENDULUMS. 


81 


ersed by an iron wire, the bob being sus¬ 
pended by two iron wires from the upper end 
of this tube. By employing steel and zinc, 
Kater succeeded in reducing the length of 
compensation metal so as to conceal it within 
the bob; and Bailey proposed a cheap con¬ 
struction that has been much used, in which 
the upward expansion of a cylindrical lead 
bob neutralized the downward expansion of 
a deal rod. 

It is unquestionable that a carefully made 
wooden pendulum is to be preferred in all 
clocks, other than the very best astronomical 
timepieces ; in conjunction with a well-made 
train, it can be relied upon to give a more 
uniform rate than any unadjusted compen¬ 
sation pendulum. Indeed, such a pendulum 
may give rise to a very great irregularity, if, 
as is perfectly possible, the arrangements for 
compensation tend to produce an opposite 
effect to that which is required. 

An immense variety of devices have been 
proposed for correcting this error of temper¬ 
ature, but they may all be classified under 
four heads: 

1. Two or more solid and rigid substances 
employed in conjunction, and so arranged 
that the vertical downward expansion of one 
is neutralized by the vertical upward expan¬ 
sion of another. 

2. Two metals of different expansibilities 
actuating levers, and thus maintaining the 
length of the pendulum invariably. 

3. Two metals of different expansibility, 
rigidly joined together by soldering or other¬ 
wise, employed to vary the distance of a 
weight from the center of suspension when¬ 
ever the temperature varies. 

4. Pendulums in which mercury is em¬ 
ployed. 

The earliest attempt to correct the varia¬ 
tions of temperature was made by Harrison, 
in the construction of his “ gridiron ” pendu¬ 
lum, consisting of nine vertical rods—five of 
steel and four of brass. 


RULES GOVERNING COMPENSATION 
PENDULUMS. 

HE compensation pendulum is to the as¬ 
tronomical clock exactly what the com¬ 
pensation balance is to the chronometer, and 
whatever facilitates the narrowing of the mar¬ 
gin that borders the central line of absolute 
accuracy, reduces the space demanded by 
final adjustment. It may never become pos¬ 
sible to produce, by mechanical means, either 


a balance or a pendulum absolutely correct 
and requiring no adjustment. There are 
means of closely approximating to that con¬ 
dition, and these I propose to impart. 

In the first place, the conditions of the 
manufacture of Graham’s mercurial pendu¬ 
lum, the one adopted by both the artist and 
the astronomer, require careful consideration. 
The rod and the stirrup should, after all me¬ 
chanical work is completed, be annealed 
down to the simplest softness, and all subse¬ 
quent bending avoided, as well as any large 
amount of friction, for the sake of polish; 
no part of the stirrup should be left on the 
strain ; everything should fit without shake, 
but still without bind. Here we arrive at 
the point of the closest approximation to the 
proportion nearest mechanically achievable 
—perfect compensation for temperature. 
The ordinary glass jar and mercury being the 
simplest, is amongst, if not absolutely, the 
best; and the result of a great number of 
experiments has proved that a glass jar of ex¬ 
actly two inches internal diameter, containing 
eleven pounds eight ounces (avoirdupois) of 
mercury will be so near to absolute compen¬ 
sation as seldom to require any correction 
when tested in heat and cold. The mercury 
should be carefully relieved from all ad¬ 
mixture of atmospheric air, and this is by no 
means an easy task. In addition to the care¬ 
ful removing of any visible air bubbles, time 
and the application of heat should be given 
in order to facilitate the decomposition of 
such remaining portions of air as cling with 
great tenacity to mercury that has been re¬ 
cently shaken. For this purpose a piece of 
bladder neatly tied over the top of the jar 
will enable the maker to aid this decomposi¬ 
tion by keeping the jar for a week or so in 
a temperature of (say) from a hundred to a 
hundred and five, and the jar should not be 
put into the stirrup until all the manipulations 
of the clock and its pendulum suspension are 
completed. 

During the ovening of the pendulum, the 
addition or subtraction of mercury from the 
jar should be effected by a dipping-tube. 
The most convenient form of this latter tool 
is a piece of glass tube half an inch in diam¬ 
eter, drawn out at one end for a couple of 
inches to a nose about two inches long, and 
of about a quarter of an inch in diameter. 
The top end of the dipper should also be 
drawn out a little, and the end of the drawn- 
out part rounded where the orifice is about 
one-tenth of an inch in diameter. The plane 




82 


TO REPAIR A YANKEE CLOCK. 


in which the pendulum swings should be east 
and west, and the suspension should always 
be of such a form as will enable the pendu¬ 
lum to oscillate by its own weight, making 
the suspension of itself from all restraint of 
friction. 

The fulfilment of the foregoing conditions 
will give in all cases good practical results. 


NEW METHOD OF HARDENING 
DELICATE STEEL PARTS. 

HE warping of very delicate or long steel 
parts by tempering is one of the most dis¬ 
agreeable occurrences that can happen to a 
watchmaker, and many remedies have been 
proposed and are in use to counteract it, with 
more or less satisfactory results—tempering 
in animal charcoal, smearing with soap, tem¬ 
pering in the lead bath, etc. The latest 
method is that of the very able watchmaker, 
Mr. P. Gabriel, published in the Revue 
Chronome'trique. He says: 

“ Take an earthen or metal crucible, pour 
in a proper quantity of cyanide of potassium 
and place it over a grate fire to fuse. Into 
this fusing mass enter the steel article to be 
hardened, and, as soon as red hot, dip it 
quickly into cold water. The article will not 
only have obtained a very good temper, but 
it has also not become warped in the slightest 
degree. Another advantage of this method 
of hardening is that the polish of the article is 
not injured whatever—in case it has already 
been polished. The polish becomes slightly 
gray, which color, however, is easily removed 
by a few retouches with wood and a little 
fine steel rouge. 

“ As regards the warping of the article to 
be hardened, it must be stated that before 
hardening it must not be injured by hammer 
taps or careless glow heating, so that the in¬ 
terior texture of the steel is damaged. Well 
treated thus, turning arbors of from four to 
five centimeters long remained perfectly true, 
when hardened by this method. This is also 
excellent for hardening the detent springs of 
chronometers, by which the foot must always 
be much larger than the very delicate, flexible 
part of the spring. All the parts are equally 
heated in the cyanide bath, in consequence 
of which they experience no warping.” 


TO REPAIR A YANKEE CLOCK. 

HE ordinary Yankee clock is so very 
cheap now that it “ hardly pays ” to re¬ 
pair it; yet it stands the wary watch and 


clock repairer in hand to look out even in this 
particular. We will suppose a customer has 
an old Yankee clock which has done service 
in the kitchen for years; he brings it in to 
you and you see it is well worn and needs a 
considerable amount of repair; now, sell him 
a new one if you can; if not, do not let him 
take it away and get some other man perhaps 
not half as skillful as yourself to tinker it up 
for him, for if you do it will be more than prob¬ 
able that he will give him his watch to clean 
and repair, and you will not only lose a cus¬ 
tomer, but have a man saying: “Oh! B.’s 
no good; I took my clock to him to fix and 
he said it was all worn out, and C. took it 
and fixed it, and it runs as well as ever.” In 
every case either sell a new one or fix up the 
old one. It is a very bad clock that one who 
knows how cannot put into shape so it will 
run. Another thing to be looked to is the 
regulation ; be sure it is running right before 
you let it go out of the store; do not trust 
the purchaser with timing his own clock, as 
it is only in rare instances that you will find 
one who can do it properly. Nine cases out 
of ten, if the clock goes too fast, he will turn 
down the nut, but it never occurs to him 
to pull the bob tightly down on to it. All 
words aside, it is best to make sure of the 
regulation yourself while you have the clock 
in your possession. The great secret in clock 
work is to know exactly what you want to do 
and have the proper tools to do the work 
with. In three cases out of four it is not 
necessary to take a clock down to insure its 
running. Put on plenty of fresh oil and take 
off the verge and let it run down, wiping off 
the oil as it exudes from the pivot holes, leav¬ 
ing enough on finally to ensure its running 
for the next twelve months. When it comes 
to repairs, clocks need but two things (as a 
rule) done to them; these are closing a hole 
or two and grinding out pits in the pallets. 
It needs no expensive punches to close a 
hole nicely, just a crescent-shaped punch of 
two or three sizes is all that is required. The 
largest punch should be of No. 5 steel wire 
and the smallest of No. 14 steel wire. Holes 
are in every instance worn on one side ; close 
up from this side only, but be sure you do 
not o /erdo the matter and force the hole over 
too far—this, like everything else around a 
watchmaker’s shop, is a matter of nice judg¬ 
ment. A few words to my old friends, the 
apprentices, for whom these articles are sup¬ 
posed to be written: Learn to take down 
and put together a clock quickly ; don’t sit 






HANDSOME FROSTING OF WHEELS, ETC. 


83 


and dread a clock and be afraid you cannot 
get it to strike right again; go at it man¬ 
fully, and say, “ I am going to get so I can 
put any striking clock together in five min¬ 
utes,” go at it and stick to it until you can be 
as good as your word. When you find it is 
necessary to take a clock down, out with the 
pins or screws and down with it; do your 
repairs and slap it together again. But for 
mercy sake don’t sit and dread it. Get (when 
you have an idle half hour at your disposal) 
an old clock movement and take it down and 
mix up the wheels, and learn to put every 
part of it in place as quickly as you can set 
the men on a checkerboard. When you have 
a hole to close, notice how it is to be closed, 
and on the side where the wear is, so as to 
restore it to as near the original condition as 
possible. Judgment is essential in regard to 
the distance from the hole at which you 
should set the punch. This in a great 
measure depends on the thickness of the 
plate; if the plate is quite thick the punch 
should be set back farther from the hole than 
in a thin plate. It should be our endeavor 
to close the hole the entire thickness of the 
plate, and this can generally be done from 
one side; but in some cases it is necessary 
to close from both sides. A round broach 
should be used to smooth out the hole after 
it is closed, putting the wheel in place and 
the plates together, and trying if the wheel 
runs free and with the proper amount of side- 
shake. A smooth-faced stake of pretty good 
weight should be used for punching on. 


HANDSOME FROSTING OF WHEELS, 
ETC. 

REQUENTLY we see stem-wind wheels 
frosted, that is, they have a dull, gray, 
matted look. This is usually done with sifted 
oil-stone dust and benzine on the end of a 
block of wood, giving the wheel or piece to 
be frosted a short circular motion. Such 
frosted wheels, when well and nicely done, 
are very pretty; but where one perfectly 
satisfactory finish of this kind is accomplished 
there will be a dozen failures. I mean to a 
greater or lesser extent. A beautiful frosting 
can be made, dissolving clear white rosin in 
alcohol. The solution does not want to be 
thick, as the thinner the solution is the finer 
the grain or finish produced will be. Take 
two wude-mouthed bottles, holding about two 
ounces each, and fill one about half full of 
rosin broken into dust and small pieces, then 


fill the bottle with 95 per cent, alcohol and 
let it stand, with an occasional shaking, 
for two or three days; after this pour the 
fluid portion into the empty bottle and fill up 
with alcohol. When we wish to frost a 
wheel, put piece of sharpened pegwood into 
the center hole (to handle it by); dip the 
wheel into the solution of rosin and alcohol 
and set the wheel on a riveting stake to dry, 
letting the point go into one of the holes so 
that the wheel will lay flat and quiet until 
dry. The wheel is now to be dipped into 
dilute nitric acid prepared by mixing fifty 
drops of acid with an ounce of water. The 
wheel is allowed to remain in about two 
minutes, when it is removed and well washed 
with water. After this the rosin is dissolved 
off with turpentine and well washed in 
soap and w r ater. If the first etching is not 
satisfactory repeat the rosin coat, dipping in 
acid, and the frosting will be found very 
even and a little coarser than the grain made 
by grinding. By rubbing the wheel on a bit 
of flat cork with oil-stone dust and benzine, 
the dark coat produced by the acid is re¬ 
moved and the surface has a beautiful steel- 
gray appearance. A mixture of of an 
ounce of alum and of an ounce of corro¬ 
sive sublimate in half a pint of water, makes 
a good acid solution into which to dip the 
wheel after the rosin coat has been applied. 
It is to be understood that the process of 
frosting by acid is not attempted until the 
wheel is ground smooth and flat, and free 
from any deep scratches. The solution of 
alum and corrosive sublimate acts much 
quicker than the dilute nitric acid, a few 
seconds answering. Before I leave the sub¬ 
ject of cheap chatelaine watches it is well to 
speak of the stem-winding works. These 
are, as a rule, very badly made and tax the 
ingenuity of the workman to the uttermost 
to remedy the countless ills to which (like 
flesh) they are heir to. The American plan 
of a tilting yoke for changing over the action 
from the winding to the hand setting, is usu¬ 
ally kept in place by a spring struck out of 
sheet metal with a die. This method is to 
be deprecated, as the die breaks up the 
strength of the steel. Springs cut out in this 
way should be struck out much larger than 
needed, and worked down with a file or mill¬ 
ing machine to the correct size. For such 
springs we need sheet steel softened in char¬ 
coal annealing box from which to cut them. 
Every watchmaker should keep an assort¬ 
ment of such sheet steel of different thick- 




8 4 


THE USE OF BENZINE FOR WATCH CLEANING. 


nesses ready softened for just such jobs. In 
making such a spring, about the best way is 
to select a bit of softened sheet steel of the 
proper thickness and soft solder the old spring 
fast to the steel. The hole is drilled and the 
whole spring given shape while the old spring 
is attached. A jeweler’s narrow saw can be 
used to saw the soft steel into shape almost 
as readily as if it were of brass. After it is 
cut out with the saw it should be brought 
nearly to shape with a file, and then hardened 
by placing it between two plates of thin sheet 
iron formed by folding one piece together 
like the covers to a book. The spring is 
embedded in a paste of Castile soap be¬ 
tween the folds of the sheet iron, heated red 
hot, and thrown into cold water to harden. 
It should now be tempered by laying on 
another piece of sheet iron with a little bees¬ 
wax, and heated until the beeswax burns 
off. This device of heating to harden can 
also be used for wheels. 


TO COLOR IRON AND STEEL BROWN. 

ISSOLVE in four parts water, two parts 
crystallized chloride of iron, two parts 
chloride of antimonium and a trifle of tannic 
acid, and apply this mixture with a cloth or 
sponge upon the surface; then let it dry. 
Repeat the application according to the 
depth of color desired. This coating fully 
protects the steel against humidity. The 
chloride of antimonium should be as little 
acid as possible. _ 

HARDENING GOLD SPRINGS. 

O gold detent, thermometer, suspension 
and balance springs can be imparted a 
high degree of elasticity. Rolling hardens 
them, but they are rendered very brittle there¬ 
by. They can be made pliable and elastic, not 
by hardening, as in the case of steel, but by 
annealing, care being taken not to exceed a 
certain degree of heat. The spring may be 
coiled on a block and placed in a tube, with 
a smooth steel lid ; then heat the tube in the 
flame of a spirit lamp, and as soon as the 
steel is of a blue temper, remove the flame 
and allow the whole to cool. 


FLATTENING AN ORDINARY BAL¬ 
ANCE SPRING. 

EMOVE the collet and stud, and clamp 
the spring by a central screw between 
two plates, which are then placed on a blu¬ 


ing tray and gently heated. A small piece 
of whitened steel is laid on the plate in order 
to see that the heat does not exceed what is 
needed to give a blue temper. Allow the 
plates to cool and separate them. Ordinary 
springs being made of rolled steel and sub¬ 
sequently coiled, always open out on heat¬ 
ing ; it is therefore necessary, before resort¬ 
ing to the above method, to coil up the spring, 
as otherwise the outer turn will be found to 
have opened beyond the stud. 


TO FIT A BOUCHON. 

A FTER repairing the pivot, a bouchon is 
. selected as small as the pivot will admit. 
Open the hole of the plate or cock so that 
the bouchon, which previously should be 
lightly draw-filed at the end, will stand with 
a slight pressure upright in the opened hole 
of the plate or cock ; then, with a knife, cut 
it across at the part where it is to be broken 
off so that it may break very readily when 
required to do so. Press it in the plate on 
the side the pivot works, break off, and then 
drive it home with a small center punch. In 
every repair of this nature, notice should be 
taken of the amount of end-shake of the 
pinion, and allowance made by leaving the 
bouchon so that any excess may be corrected. 
To finish off the shoulder end, a small cham¬ 
fering tool should be used. It has a hole 
smaller than the pivot one to receive a fine 
brass wire, serving as a center to prevent the 
tool from changing its position while being 
used; or the wire may be put through the 
bouchon holes, and then the hole of the tool 
may be left open. The above is a far more 
expeditious way than using the turning lathe. 


THE USE OF BENZINE FOR WATCH 
CLEANING. 

N a period at the workbench extending 
over fifty years, I have used benzine for the 
last fifteen—of course, the purest. A piece 
of brass dipped into it will not have a par¬ 
ticle left on it one-half minute after, and 
if my experience in this line will be of any 
use, I am glad to offer it to my fellow-work¬ 
men. 

On taking a watch down, removing all 
screws and cap jewels, I place all the parts 
in an alcohol glass one-half full of benzine; 
I then put the cover on and let it soak for 
an hour or so; two or three can thus be in 
operation at the same time. Then I turn all 










MEASURE FOR THE LENGTH OF BALANCE STAFF, ETC. 


out into a small white porcelain plate, and 
with tweezers and a small, stumpy camel’s- 
hair brush, wash all the parts while covered 
with the benzine ; on removing, dry off with 
an old fine cambric rag; then place in alco¬ 
hol and dry off with another clean rag; this 
can all be done easily in ten minutes! I do 
not let it remain in the alcohol longer than 
I can help, putting the balance and pallets 
in last, and taking them out first. I very 
seldom find it necessary to use either peg or 
(watch) brush; thus the gilding even on a 
cheap watch will never get rubbed off. Of 
course, you want to keep clean rags, espe¬ 
cially for the alcohol. In my opinion, there 
are so few watches that will do without a 
little oil on the pallets, that it is best to put 
it on all. Often when I have left them over 
night without oil, they have stopped before 
morning (of course, alcohol makes them very 
dry), and this has happened with good Amer¬ 
ican watches too. 


TO REPAIR A PINION. 

A T the present prices of material, it is 
l economy to buy the parts as nearly fin¬ 
ished as possible. Then take your measures 
and bring them to sizes required in your lathe. 
Then stake the wheels to their place with a 
good true staking tool. With a good tool, 
you are bound to do good work. The bal¬ 
ance staff, when broken, requires a staking 
tool and roller remover to do a good job 
properly. Fit your new staff to the jewels, 
then stake on the balance; place in position 
and take a blow-pipe and blow against its 
edge, and see if it runs easy in all positions. 
This is the very best test. Let it run lively 
and listen, and see if there is any tremble or 
jar; if you hear this, the balance is out of 
poise or out of truth. Always get a good 
polish on your pivots. 


TO STRAIGHTEN THE CYLINDER 
WHEEL. 

T HE cylinder escape wheel, if it does not 
run flat, may be straightened upon a nice 
little brass anvil, which has a hole for the 
pinion in the center; it can be placed either 
upon the workbench or fastened in the vise ; 
a small punch, in the shape of a rounded- 
off chisel can be used, or else taps are di¬ 
rectly given upon the wheel with the pane 
of a small hammer. Care of course is neces¬ 
sary. 


85 

THE PROPORTION OF AN ESCAPE¬ 
MENT. 

HE most effectual test of the correctness 
of the proportions of an escapement is 
supplied by the bankings. Assuming that the 
depths are right, the “run ” of the pallets 
ought to be the same as the shake on the 
bankings, and if the wheel has been so planted 
that the lever lies straight along the pallet 
the proportions may be used as the basis of 
future operations, assuming always that the 
angle of the pallets are the same. 


TO MAKE A WHETSTONE. 

T is easy to make a stone for sharpening 
tools and to make it sufficiently hard, 
and give it the “ bite ” desired. Take gel¬ 
atine of a very good quality, which melt in 
an equal quantity of water. The operation 
should be performed in darkness, as daylight 
is injurious to gelatine. When melted, add 
one and one-half per cent, of bicarbonate 
of potash previously dissolved. Then take 
about nine times, by weight, the quantity of 
gelatine employed of very fine emery and 
pulverized flint-stone, which mix intimately 
with the dissolved gelatine. Mould the ob¬ 
tained paste according to the desired form, 
and press it in as hard as possible to consoli¬ 
date the mass well. After it has been dried 
in the sun, you will have a first-class stone 
for sharpening. _ 

HOW TO DRILL HARD STEEL. 

AVING to put a pivot in a pinion wheel, 
on attempting to drill, I found no drill I 
could make would cut it. I thought of trying 
the same lubricator as for cutting or drilling 
glass, viz., turpentine, and to my great sur¬ 
prise I found the same drills cut freely and 
enabled me to get over the difficulty. In a 
long experience and with many men, I never 
heard of it being used before, and if not gen¬ 
erally known, if tried I am sure will remove 
a difficulty that I know has existed with many 
repairers. _ 

MEASURE FOR THE LENGTH OF 
BALANCE STAFF, ETC. 

N exchange contains a practical process 
for exact measure. The brass instrument 
is composed of a brass pendant with two 
points placed one over the other, exactly sim¬ 
ilar to the point of the depthing-tool, with the 
exception that the inside ends are flat. Both 










86 


THE TRAIN OF A WATCH. 


points will be pressed by side screws, similar 
to the depthing-tool. The outer end of the 
upper point is furnished with a screw, on 
which is a strong adjusting nut. It has to 
be used as follows: The tool with the situ¬ 
ated piece is pressed into the vise, and after 
the cover-lids or end-stones have been taken 
off from the jewel holes of both balance staff 
or cylinder cocks, the whole is brought with 
the left hand between the points of the in¬ 
strument, of which the lowest will be estab¬ 
lished by the side screw, while the upper one 
remains previously loosened. The last point 
is afterward pressed softly down, until it re¬ 
poses on the outer surface of the upper jewel 
hole. The upper point is also pressed by 
the side screw and the nut screwed down, 
so as to pose firmly on the body of the tool. 
By this process is the corrected measure 
given. To take the plate out with both 
cocks, it is necessary to screw the upper side 
looser and to lift the point, by which motion 
the whole is free and easily taken away. 
The point is to be pushed back until the nut 
reposes firm on the body of the tool, being 
also pressed by the side screw. The distance 
of both points given is the exact one between 
the outer surfaces of both side holes, which 
shows the right length of the arbor to be fin¬ 
ished. 


CLUB TEETH. 

NE of the grave objections to the club 
tooth is that, no matter how perfect the 
machinery for cutting the teeth, error will 
creep in ; and these errors are much more 
difficult to detect than with the ratchet tooth, 


CYLINDER PIVOTS. 

LL cylinder pivots should be of a coni¬ 
cal shape, since they are then much 
stronger; and their making does not require 
more time and skill than ordinary cylindrical 
pivots. They are made with a three-cornered 
pivot polishing file, the edges of which are 
correspondingly ground off. The file must 
be well sharpened, to be done with medium 
fine emery upon a flat piece of lead. 


THE TRAIN OF A WATCH. 

HE first condition for the construction 
of the train of a watch, says M. Gross- 
mann, is to make it of as large dimensions 
as the diameter of the movement will admit 
of. The very limited space allowed by the 


reigning taste for the movement of a port¬ 
able time-keeper is already an impediment 
to the attaining of a high degree of perfec¬ 
tion in the gearings; and if it is possible to 
execute the wheels and pinions of a clock 
with a satisfactory degree of accuracy, it 
gets more and more difficult to do so, accord¬ 
ing to the smaller dimensions in which the 
work is to be executed. If we had the 
means of verifying easily the accuracy of the 
division and rounding of our small pinions, 
even of the best make, we would soon come 
to the conclusion that it must necessarily 
diminish with the dimensions. The inequal¬ 
ities and alterations of shape by the stoning 
and polishing will be nearly the same with a 
large pinion as with a small one, only the 
small one suffers proportionally much more 
under them. This applies to the manufact¬ 
uring of the pinions ; but before the pinion 
runs in the train it has to pass through the 
finishing process. The finisher first of all 
will have to verify whether the pinion runs 
perfectly true, and to set it true in case of 
need. In all operations of this nature the 
operator has to rely on his eye for distinguish¬ 
ing whether the state of the piece is satisfac¬ 
tory. But the eye, like all the senses of 
man, is reliable only within certain limits, 
and if a good workman pronounces a pinion 
to be true, this statement must not be taken 
mathematically; it can only be understood 
so that an experienced eye can no more de¬ 
tect any deviations from the truth of run¬ 
ning. There are, then, in any piece of 
workmanship, some small defects escaping 
the most experienced eye, and their absolute 
quantity is about the same for the large 
pieces as for the small ones. Let us suppose, 
for instance, that a careful workman when 
turning a pinion of 3 millimeters diameter, 
cannot perceive any defect of truth beyond 
one hundredth of this size—say 0.03 milli¬ 
meter. The same defect, indistinguishable 
to his eye, with a pinion of one millimeter 
diameter, will be not one but three hun¬ 
dredths of it; consequently it is of threefold 
more importance with the small pinion taken 
proportionally. 

The same considerations will, to their full 
extent, apply also to the correctness of the 
depths or gearings; and it will be clearly 
seen that it is of the greatest importance to 
construct the acting parts of the train as large 
as the diameter of the watch will admit of. 

Another matter of great importance is the 
uniform transmission of motive power from 








THE TRAIN OF A WATCH. 


87 


the barrel through the train to the escape¬ 
ment. This uniformity can only be attained 
by good depthing; and, as it is well known 
that the depthings are more perfect with the 
higher numbered pinions, it is advisable 
never to have the center pinion with less than 
12 leaves, the third and fourth wheel pinions 
with 10, and the escape pinion with 7 at 
least. The difference resulting therefrom in 
the cost of manufacturing is so very trifling, 
that it could not be an obstacle to making 
even low class watches with these numbers. 

The center pinion, it must be admitted, 
will be more delicate, apparently, and more 
liable to injury by the sudden jerk resulting 
from a rupture of the mainspring, or by the 
pressure occasioned through careless wind¬ 
ing. The teeth of the barrel, too, being 
necessarily thinner, will be more apt to bend 
from the same causes; but this is partly 
remedied by the fact that with a pinion of 
twelve there are in almost every moment two 
teeth of the barrel acting at the same time 
on two leaves of the pinion, while in the 
lower numbered pinions one tooth alone 
has to lead through a more or less extended 
angle. Thus, any sudden shock will be 
divided between two teeth of the pinion of 
twelve, and sustained in the same way by 
two teeth of the barrel belonging to it, where¬ 
by the same apparent danger is greatly dimin¬ 
ished. Besides, the finer toothing produces 
a better transmission of power, a weaker 
mainspring may be used, and, in case of its 
rupture, the shock will be less violent. 

One of the chief conditions for a good and 
regular transmission of power is a good and 
suitable shape of the wheel teeth ; and it is 
astonishing to see in what an indifferent way 
this important matter is treated. It is a 
well-known fact that the wheel teeth, in order 
to act properly, ought to have an epicvcloidal 
rounding, and no engineer would suffer any 
form for the teeth of star wheels. Berthoud 
treated this subject in a most elaborate way 
about a century ago ; Reid and others have 
also explained the principles of the construc¬ 
tion of toothed wheels most explicitly, but in 
vain. It seems that the greater part of the 
horological community have resolved to view 
the shape of their wheel teeth as a matter of 
taste. All the wheels of English and other 
makers have, with very few exceptions, their 
teeth of a shape defying the rules of Berthoud, 
Reid, and other masters—a shape of which 
nothing can be said, except that they look 
very nice in the eyes of those who make 


them, or those who use them, and say, “ They 
look much better, indeed, than those ugly 
pointed teeth.” 

There is no possibility of being successful 
against arguments like these, and I have 
known many a respectable and good watch¬ 
maker who declared that he could not bear 
the sight of epicycloidally rounded teeth. 
This is a subject, however, which cannot be 
more amply entered into in the present essay. 

The respective proportions of the wheels 
of a train ought also to present a certain har¬ 
mony, attainable by a regular progression in 
the diameters of the wheels and the fineness 
of their teeth. 

With respect to the escape pinion, at least 
for the larger watches, I would strongly rec¬ 
ommend to have it of eight leaves, with a 
fourth wheel of 75, and an escape wheel of 
16 teeth. The last depthing, the most sensi¬ 
tive of all to any irregularity of transmission, 
will be found greatly improved by so doing. 

The following are the sizes of a train which, 
according to my opinion, would answer per¬ 
fectly to the above conditions, for a watch 
of 43 millimeters = 19 lignes Swiss = 14 lines 
English size. 


Diameter of barrel. . 43 x 0.485 = 20.85 mm - 

Center wheel.15.4 mm. 

Third wheel .. ..13.0 mm. 

Fourth wheel.11.8 mm. 

The numbers would be : 

Barrel.90 teeth. 

Center wheel.80 “ 

Third wheel.75 “ 

Fourth wheel.75 “ 

Escape wheel.16 “ 

Pinion.. 

U 

.IO 

u 

.IO 

“ . 8 


The sizes of teeth are accordingly: 

Barrel.0.345 mm. 

Center wheel.0.30 mm. 

Third wheel.0.27 mm. 

Fourth wheel.0.24 mm. 


It is easy to see that this progression is a 
very regular one. 

The train ought to be arranged in such a 
way as to have the seconds circle at a suit¬ 
able place on the dial. This circle, of course, 
ought to be as large as possible for the sake 
of distinctness of the divisions, and, on the 
other hand, it ought not to be so large as to 


















88 


SCREW PLATES AND TAPS. 


cover entirely the VI. of the hour circle. It 
may be recommended as a good disposition 
to have the center of the circle of seconds 
exactly in the middle of the distance from 
the center of the dial to its edge. The gen¬ 
eral observation of this rule would be a de¬ 
cided step toward a greater regularity of 
construction, and besides it would prove a 
great boon to all the dealers and manufact¬ 
urers of dials, and to all the repairers who 
have to replace broken dials. 

A greater circle of seconds might be ob¬ 
tained by approaching its center nearer to 
the center of the dial, but this subordinate 
advantage would be too dearly purchased at 
the expense of the commodious arrangement 
of the wheel work. 

The height of the moving arbors ought to 
be restricted only by the height of the frame. 
The longer the distance between the two 
bearings of an axis can be, the better it will 
prove for the stability of the moving part as 
well as its performance. The same amount 
of side-shake required for free action will in¬ 
fluence the pitch of a long pinion less than 
that of a short one. 

The diameters of the pivots in the watch 
work could not be made according to the 
generally established rules in the construction 
of machines, for if we should attempt to 
make the dimensions of our pivots in a theo¬ 
retical proportion to the strain which they 
have to resist, we would obtain pivots of such 
extreme thinness that they would be very 
difficult to make and handle, and it would be 
doubtful whether the cross-section of such 
a pivot would not come into an unfavor¬ 
able proportion with the molecular disposi¬ 
tion of the steel. Besides, it ought always 
to be kept in mind that the pivots of the 
train must not be calculated to bear with 
safety the mere pressure of the mainspring, 
but also the sudden strains resulting from 
rupture of the spring or from rough winding. 
Thus, there will be very little to say against 
the way in which the pivots of watch work 
are generally made. 


SCREW PLATES AND TAPS. 

HE lathes employed in the manufacture 
of screws, says Mr. Saunier, are of two 
kinds; those intended for polishing, and, 
where necessary, modifying the form of screw 
heads much used by watch examiners and 
repairers, and those specially designed for 
cutting the threads, which are mainly in use 


among mechanics. Before discussing them, 
however, we will give some account of the 
screw plates and taps in ordinary use. 

COMMON HAND SCREW PLATES. 

The use of these is much facilitated by 
providing a seconds plate perforated with 
holes of such sizes that a spindle which 
just passes into a hole of any given number 
will be of the size most convenient for form¬ 
ing a screw in the hole of the same number in 
the screw plate. For a long time we had 
made use of two Latard screw plates, so 
made that a rod which would enter into 
one hole without play was of the most con¬ 
venient size for forming a screw in the next 
smaller hole but one. (Thus the plate per¬ 
forated with plain holes can be replaced by 
a second screw plate, or by using the suc¬ 
cessively larger holes on a single plate as 
gauges.) 

In order to form a screw that is clean cut 
and even with the least possible straining of 
the metal, the holes in the screw plates should 
have notches; they should be carefully 
hardened and well polished on each side of 
the notch, and this system is now even ap¬ 
plied in the case of the smallest jewel screws. 

SCREW DIES. 

The ordinary plate in which notches are 
not cut at the sides squeezes up and strains 
the metal. This effect is less marked when 
separate dies are used, and disappears en¬ 
tirely if only a small quantity of metal is 
removed at a time and the cutting edges of 
the dies are smooth and in good order. In 
addition to possessing other advantages, this 
form of screw plates enables us to obtain at 
will screws of the same thread and different 
diameters, or of the same diameter and dif¬ 
ferent threads. The dies must be carefully 
fitted to the sides that receive them. Dies 
cannot be employed for cutting very small 
screws. 

FINE THREADED SCREW PLATES. 

At the present day these can always be 
obtained at the tool shops; but thirty years 
ago it was not so, and the watchmaker was 
obliged to make them for himself. The fol¬ 
lowing method was adopted: Take a screw 
formed with an ordinary plate in which the 
thread is broad as compared with the hollow. 
If the screw does not satisfy this condition, 
it must be modified thus: Having ascer¬ 
tained that it runs true on its points, and that 




BANKING EBROR. 


89 


it is larger than will be ultimately required, 
attach a ferrule to the screw and place it be¬ 
tween the centers of the lathe. The T-rest 
must carry a smooth horizontal rod of hard¬ 
ened steel. Rotating the screw with a bow, 
hold a slitting file in the hollow; the file 
should fit into this hollow accurately and 
should be smoothed on its two sides, only 
cutting with one edge. The bar of hardened 
steel will determine the depth to which the 
file is allowed to cut. By this means a screw 
is obtained that has a thread thick at the 
bottom. With the graver remove the top 
of this thread, round off its corners and 
harden the screw, filing three facets along 
its entire length that make it taper. The 
tap having been thus prepared is employed 
for cutting a thread in a piece of steel, not 
too thick, that has been previously annealed, 
and in which a hole is drilled of the proper 
size. The thread of this internal screw 
will be thin and the hollow proportionately 
broad. 

The plate is now hammered cold with 
care, until the thickness is so far diminished 
that the thread and hollow are as nearly as 
possible of equal thickness. Harden it and 
chamfer the ends of the hole with a conical 
steel point and oil-stone dust. Then clean it 
and cut a thread on a piece of soft steel 
which may be formed into a tap. If the 
operation has been properly conducted this 
tap will satisfy the prescribed conditions and, 
when hardened, it is to be employed as a 
screw plate; for that first formed must, in 
consequence of the hammering to which it 
was subjected, present irregularities in the 
hole, and can only be used to cut one or 
two taps cautiously. It is useless for making 
screws or tapping brass. 


TO CLEAR A STOPPED HOLE IN A 
SCREW PLATE. 

RILL a hole through the center of the 
piece of metal that fills up the hole, tak¬ 
ing care to maintain it central, and to employ 
a drill that is sufficiently small to avoid all risk 
of contact with the screw thread. Pass a 
broach through this hole, and, after tighten¬ 
ing it with a few gentle blows with the ham¬ 
mer, turn it in such a direction that it tends 
to unscrew the broken screw, which will, in 
nearly every case, be removed without diffi¬ 
culty by this means. 


THROW AWAY BAD SPRINGS. 

HE vibration of the balance and the 
time-keeping qualities of the watch are 
more frequently destroyed by untrue and 
badly put springs. Repairs to springs, except 
of a trifling character, are generally false econ¬ 
omy. An hour may be spent trying to re¬ 
shape and flatten a bad spring in vain, which 
can be replaced in a few minutes by an ex¬ 
pert hand possessing a good stock of springs, 
and nothing pays so well for keeping. 


THE CUTTING OF HOLLOWS, ETC. 

HE cutting of hollows in pinion faces 
and rivets is perhaps the finest test of 
skill with the graver, as a sharp, well-pointed, 
yet strong, graver must be used, and the 
graver cutting clean without burr or rough¬ 
ness, leaving the hollow a bright gray. It 
was the practice years ago to polish hollow, 
but there is no skill in the operation, and it 
has gone out of fashion. The value of hol¬ 
lows to rivets and pinions, when the pivots 
are close to them, is very great, as they pre¬ 
vent the oil running away from the pivots 
and shoulders. _ 

LOSS OF ESCAPE WHEEL. 

HOULD an escape wheel and pinion 
be lost, they can be replaced by sector¬ 
ing the fourth wheel for the size of the pinion, 
or a pinion whose leaves are rather smaller 
than the same number of teeth of the wheel 
may be tried in the depthing-tool, taking the 
depth from the fourth and scape holes. The 
scape wheel corresponds in number on the 
gauge with the hole in the cylinder gauge, in 
which it fits; but before using it will be as 
well to see if the cylinder passes freely be¬ 
tween two teeth of the wheel, and that one 
tooth of the wheel has shake sufficient for 
freedom in the inside of the cylinder. 


BANKING ERROR. 

NEW hairspring will sometimes cause 
the banking error. There is a tendency 
of late years to put too many turns in the 
hairsprings of cylinder watches. A large 
number of turns in a lever balance spring is 
a great advantage, owing to the greater vi¬ 
bration necessary and desirable; but when 
the arc of vibration is small, as in cylinder 
and vertical watches, long springs do not 
have all their turns properly in action, and 
offering not sufficient resistance to the bal- 











9 o 


TO REGULATE A FINE WATCH. 


ance, allow it to travel greater distances too 
easily. A balance without the balance spring 
strikes the banking at every vibration, and 
the number of turns and tension of the spring 
are the means to be used to prevent this. 

TO FIT IN NEW SCAPE WHEEL. 

HE old wheel was defective, the teeth 
being bent and too short, so that the 
action was not safe; the effect being that 
the scape tooth, instead of dropping on the 
locking face of the pallet jewel, and drawing 
the fork over to the banking pin, dropped on 
the impulse face, and thereby caused the 
fork to travel the opposite direction and bring 
the guard pin up against the roller, which 
would either cause the watch to stop or vary. 
No doubt some of my readers have often, in 
listening to a watch ticking when in the case, 
heard an occasional scraping noise, and an 
accompanying dropping off in the'motion, 
and perhaps it would run on again for some 
time before another scrape would take place. 
If you have, you can in all probability trace 
the trouble to a very shallow depthing or an 
untrue scape wheel, which caused the guard 
point of fork to rub against the tail roller. 
Pick out a new wheel that you think is about 
the correct size and run it on a small turning 
arbor, and insert it with pallets in depthing 
tool, and examine the action very carefully. 
If the inside edge of the entrance pallet 
catches against the back of a scape tooth, 
the wheel is too large, as it sticks on the in¬ 
side and would consequently have too much 
drop on the outside. If the outer edge of 
disengaging pallet jewel catches against the 
back of a scape tooth the wheel is too small, 
and there would be too much drop on the 
inside ; if correct the tooth should drop just 
nicely safe on the locking faces of the pallet 
jewels, and the drop should be about equal, 
that is, when the scape tooth leaves the im¬ 
pulse face of the entrance or engaging pallet 
jewel, the distance the wheel has to travel 
before coming in contact with the locking 
face of the disengaging pallet jewel should 
be the same practically as it is when the 
tooth leaves the edge of impulse face of dis¬ 
engaging pallet, and the wheel again comes in 
contact with locking face of engaging pallet. 

THE MEANING OF “ADJUSTED.” 

ATALOGUES and lists of prices fre¬ 
quently speak of “ adjusted ” move¬ 
ments, which term is also applied frequently 


to cheap watches. The term is a very elas¬ 
tic one, and can be stretched so as to cover 
a multitude of sins. It varies, according to 
whether it is applied to the balances, the 
movements, etc. An adjusted balance means 
a chronometer, or expansion balance, which 
is adjusted for changes of temperature, so 
that it will keep the same rate in warm or cold 
weather. This adjustment is made more 
close or perfect in fine watches than in cheap 
ones. A great many are sold as “ adjusted,” 
that have never been adjusted at all. 

But there are other adjustments besides 
that for heat and cold—as the adjustment for 
the positions, which enables the watch to keep 
the same rate whether hanging up or lying 
down, or in any other position, while carry¬ 
ing, etc.; the adjustment for isochronism, 
which is an adjustment of the balance spring 
to secure isochronal vibration of the balance ; 
the rating or timing is often called the adjust¬ 
ment for rate, etc. An adjusted movement , 
or one “ fully adjusted,” should have all of 
these adjustments, but an adjusted balance 
is only adjusted for heat and cold. 

An expansion balance, the rim of which 
is not cut entirely through, is certainly not 
adjusted, and cannot be. This is a simple 
test for some kinds of cheap bogus “ ad¬ 
justed ” watches. But the methods of test¬ 
ing cut balances, and also for testing the 
other adjustments, are too numerous and too 
lengthy to be condensed into one simple ar¬ 
ticle, but will be given more fully in detail. 


TO REGULATE A FINE WATCH. 

OME time ago a correspondent desired 
to know how to regulate a very fine 
watch made by a certain favorably known 
English watchmaker. He said that although 
he “ had tried altering the hairspring by tak¬ 
ing up and letting out, yet could never obtain 
the desired effect.” 

When a watch has no regulator, it is reg¬ 
ulated by the timing screws in the balance 
rim, at the end of the center bar. They are 
turned very slightly inward, to make the 
watch gain, and outward, to lose. Both 
screws must be turned exactly the same 
quantity, or the balance will be thrown out 
of poise, and regular running will be impos¬ 
sible. Should the amount of regulation 
wanted be too much to be easily corrected 
by these screws, it shows that there is some 
fault in the movement, which should be 
looked after and repaired. This may be in 








TO PUT AN ADJUSTED WATCH IN ORDER. 


9 1 


the escapement, or elsewhere. It is some¬ 
times caused by the balance rim having be¬ 
come bent by the careless handling. But 
the hairspring should never be disturbed in 
a fine watch, unless in some very exceptional 
circumstances. Its length and curvature have 
probably been carefully adjusted to secure 
isochronal vibration of the balance, and tak¬ 
ing it up or letting it out will at once dam¬ 
age or destroy the isochronism. Even tak¬ 
ing up a hairspring and afterward putting it 
back where it was in the beginning will often 
spoil it for fine running, because the shape 
of the spring and the condition of the metal 
have been so altered by the pressure of the 
pin in the hole, the bending or straightening 
of the coil, etc., as to unfit it for isochronal 
action. It is difficult, in fact, for a workman 
who is not fully posted in fine watch work, 
to handle a fine movement without injuring 
it in some way, although he may not know 
how he did it, or discover the fact till the 
owner complains of its inferior performance. 


TO PUT AN ADJUSTED WATCH IN 
ORDER. 

E have heard so many complaints com¬ 
ing from members of the trade in re¬ 
gard to this matter, that we thought perhaps 
the pointing out of the difficulty concerning 
the remedy therefor would be of profit to all 
concerned. Ten years ago we hardly sold 
one adjusted watch a year; now a large 
portion of the watches we sell are adjusted 
movements, I having sold eight the past 
month (April), and they are the best adver¬ 
tisement that a jeweler can have. 

If a watch was going immediately into 
the hands of a customer without any prepara¬ 
tion except what it received at the factory, 
I would rather risk a well made medium- 
priced watch than a fine adjusted watch. 
The reason of this is that the adjusted move¬ 
ment is usually three times as long in stock 
as the medium grade that they have calls for 
every day, and it may have been out on ap¬ 
proval and have been monkeyed with more 
or less by some knowing ones. If the fol¬ 
lowing rules, which I practice on every ad¬ 
justed watch I receive, are carried out, I will 
guarantee satisfaction not only to the buyer, 
but to the seller, for it is a satisfaction to sell 
a good time-keeper. 

i st.—When you receive the movement, 
look it carefully over outside to see that it 
has received no apparent injury ; then tak¬ 


ing out the slip under the balance, observe 
the motion in different positions and see that 
it has not only the same, but a good motion 
in any and all positions, with the mainspring 
one-half wound up. 

2d.—Place a bristle or fine broach in the 
train so as to stop the motion; see that 
neither pallet hits against the scape wheel so 
as to hold the fork to one side; then with 
your strongest glass, observe that the hair¬ 
spring, just where it goes through the pins, 
is exactly in the center, with about the thick¬ 
ness of the hairspring each side, or perhaps 
less. Also observe whether it is true in the 
round or flat; if everything is all right ap¬ 
parently, you can proceed to the first test. 
If the hairspring is not in the center of the 
pins when the balance is at rest, the stud 
must be turned until it stands so, but the 
pins must not be stirred under any consid¬ 
eration, and the banking pins must not be 
moved. If the watch is not adjusted to 
position, the first test should be made with 
pendant up (don’t put the movement in the 
case yet). Wind it entirely up, set the sec¬ 
onds hand exactly with the seconds hand of 
the regulator, and let it run for 12 hours; 
make an observation and set down just how 
much it has gained or lost; leave it in the 
same position and set it again with the reg¬ 
ulator ; in 12 hours more observe the varia¬ 
tion. Say in the first 12 hours it gained 30 
seconds, and in the next 12 hours it only 
gained 20; 10 seconds difference between 
the first and last coils of the mainspring. If 
the hairspring is isochronized, 5 seconds is 
as much variation as should be allowed, if 
the observations on the works and hairspring 
have found them correct. 

In a movement costing over $15.00 I 
should send it back if I had found in these 
preliminary trials the variation between the 
first and the last observations exceeded five 
seconds, or if the movement was running 
fast or slow to exceed one minute either way 
per day, for if the regulator has to be moved 
much the isochronism of the spring will 
suffer. 

If the watch is adjusted to position it 
should be tried in different positions, each 
time setting it exactly with the regulator and 
using the same strength of mainspring for 
different positions, and if in a 6-hour trial in 
each position, it should not vary more than 
three seconds from the standard or vertical 
adjustment, I should retain it. 

Some may consider these conditions rather 




9 2 


THE KNACK OF PIVOTING. 


severe, but if the movement was in the con¬ 
dition described before being tested, I have 
not had to return but three out of hundreds 
tested and sold. 


CARE OF THE EYES. 

T happens occasionally that, while turn¬ 
ing, a splinter of the metal will fly into 
the eye. Never try to expel it by rubbing, 
as it simply irritates the eye and drives the 
chip still further into it. It is better to raise 
the upper lid or draw it over the lower, so 
that when returning to its place, it slides over 
the lower eyelashes, which will thereby sweep 
it clean, as it were. This process will, in 
the majority of cases, suffice to remove the 
chip or other foreign body ; if not, the object 
may be gotten out with a strip of white paper 
or a camel’s-hair brush. Never, however, let 
any one use a hard instrument; if this is 
necessary to be done, it is most advisable to 
send for or go to a physician. 


TO LUBRICATE CLICK-WORK, ETC. 

HEN putting together the barrel parts, 
never forget to lubricate the click-work, 
more particularly that of the going-barrel, as 
the injury occasioned by its working, while 
dry, would soon show itself. The main¬ 
spring is to be lubricated only slightly. The 
stop-finger should always be fastened with a 
steel pin ; it is more securely retained thereby. 
The barrel is mounted in the plate, and 
the spring is wound a few teeth to apply oil 
to the escapement. 


THE KNACK OF PIVOTING. 

HE repairer who is the happy owner of 
an American lathe (and right here let me 
say the scope of usefulness of this tool is so 
much greater than that of any others I have 
ever used, that the latter simply drop clear 
out of sight) will readily echo the opinion ex¬ 
pressed to me by a brother repairer. When 
asked how he liked his new lathe, he ejacu¬ 
lated, “ Like it! I do not think that a bet¬ 
ter tool exists; I am prepared with it to do 
any kind of turning, from a cambric needle 
to a sheet anchor.” Supposing, however, 
that we do not get an order for a sheet anchor 
every day, and only have a balance staff of 
a low-grade American with the upper pivot 
broken, and our customer not willing to pay 
for a new staff, requires the insertion of a 
new pivot. Before proceeding farther, I will 


devote a little space to the explanation of a 
small device for holding pivot drills, which 
I think is ahead of some found in material 
stores, as no set screw is required and the 
drill is always centered. 

This drill chuck is made by securing a 
j^-inch brass chuck in your lathe, and turning 
the end down to fit snugly in the taper hole 
in the spindle of the tail stock, but should fit 
tighter near the shoulder, so it will close on 
the drill, when pressed in tightly; the prin¬ 
cipal being the same as that of the American 
lathe chucks. 

After it is fitted and cut off, place it in 
tail spindle and drill a hole through it just 
to fit the wire you intend to use for pivot 
drills. Mark the relative positions of chucks, 
spindle and tail stock by little dots so that 
they can be replaced in the same position to 
bring the drill true. Now, with a fine saw, 
split the chuck as indicated by the heavy line 
in the center, and it is complete, and will 
pay you for your trouble a thousand times. 

I now take a No. 6 chuck and put it in my 
lathe, insert the staff and stone off the stub 
of the broken pivot, down to the shoulder. 
Try the truth of its running by sliding the T 
up close, and resting a small screw-driver on 
it so that the point will just touch the lower 
side of the staff near the end, rotate and see 
if it runs true; if any light can be seen be¬ 
tween the screw-driver and the staff at any 
part of the revolution, it is not true, and must 
be loosened and turned in the chuck a little. 
Keep on trying till it runs perfectly true. 
If there is no point at which it can be set to 
run true, the only remedy is wax, but I sel¬ 
dom find one that will not run true when set 
in the proper position in the chuck. When 
you get it true, tighten it up for keeps. Take 
the measurement with a height gauge from 
the balance arm to the top of the pivot, 
making allowance for the part broken off. 
Few staffs are so hard that a properly made 
and tempered drill will not cut them ; if it 
will not, draw the temper in the staff slightly, 
with a wheel protector covering the wheel, 
being careful not to blue the balance arms. 
Nothing makes a much more unsightly job 
than having the balanced arms blued or al¬ 
most blackened as I have seen them, half 
way to the rim. If they should become 
slightly colored by heat it may be removed by 
dilute hydrochloric acid, cleaning thoroughly 
with alcohol after, to prevent its rusting. In¬ 
sert the drill in the little chuck previously de¬ 
scribed, press the chuck firmly in the spindle, 







THE MOTIVE POWER OF CLOCKS. 


93 


and all is ready to drill. Take hold of the 
rubber button at the end of tail-stock spindle, 
and press the drill against the work. If the 
chuck and drill have been made with proper 
care, one can center and drill a staff with his 
eyes shut. If the tail-stock spindle should 
not be true, it might be prudent to have a 
little dot on the spindle, and also one on the 
little chuck to correspond with it to necessi¬ 
tate its coming true every time. Drill the 
hole about one millimeter in depth, although 
this may be varied to suit circumstances. 
Now take a needle in the pin vise, a trifle 
larger than the hole you have drilled, and 
draw the temper in it, never beyond a blue, 
then file it down by the thumb and finger 
motion, till the end will just start in the hole. 
It should be tapered a very little, but if too 
much, it will loosen and work out in turning. 
Drive it in tightly with a light hammer, and 
cut it off with a sharp-pointed graver, a little 
longer than is indicated by the height gauge 
previously referred to, so that it may be 
shortened to the exact length by stoning. 
Great care should be exercised in cutting it 
off, and in the first turning of the pivot, to 
keep the graver sharp, and not use too much 
pressure or the pivot will become loosened 
in the staff. Turn and polish the pivot the 
same as you would on a new staff. In turn¬ 
ing the back slope at the base of the cone, 
cut away a little of the metal of the old part 
of the staff, to be sure that the shoulder of 
the new pivot is even with the old, making 
an invisible joint. When I say that I use 
needles for drills, pivots, etc., I do not mean 
to say that I am partial to them; they are 
good, and so is Stubb’s steel or other wire 
of equal quality; but as they are cheap 
and easily obtained, of any size, I mostly use 
them. If the hole you drill for a pivot breaks 
out at the side, or you find the hole is much 
out of true, discard it entirely and make a 
new staff. Any attempt at soldering or botch¬ 
ing should not be indulged in if one ever 
wishes to be a master of the art. 


THE MOTIVE POWER OF CLOCKS. 

LOCKS not propelled by springs are 
actuated by weights fastened to the end 
of a cord, which is wound around a barrel. 
The power of the weight increases or de¬ 
creases according to the diameter of the bar¬ 
rel. The radius of the barrel is a one-armed 
lever, but by its union with the barrel wheel 
it becomes two-armed. For this reason the 


power with which the barrel wheel depths 
into the pinion is proportioned to the draw¬ 
ing power of the weight or its ponderosity, as 
the length of the radius of the barrel, multi¬ 
plied with the ponderosity of the weight, 
to the length of the radius of the barrel 
wheel. 

If, for instance, the ponderosity is 2 kilo¬ 
grams, the radius of the pinion 2 centimeters, 
and the radius of the barrel wheel 6 centi¬ 
meters, then the power with which the latter 
depths into the pinion is 2 x 2 : : 6 = yz 
kilogram. 

In the clock train the power decreases 
with each wheel that depths into a pinion 
by so much as the radius of the pinion is 
contained in the radius of the wheel depth- 
ing into it. We may also say “ diameter ” 
in place of “radius,” as the proportion re¬ 
mains the same. When, for instance, the 
barrel wheel depths with a power of 750 
grams into a pinion of 8 millimeters in di¬ 
ameter, and this arbor carries a wheel of 50 
millimeters in diameter, then this wheel ex¬ 
erts a force of only 120 grams upon the next 
pinion. Because 750 x 8 : : 50 = 120 
grams. In this manner the power may be 
calculated up to the scape wheel. 

If, however, the original power were to 
be retained, it then would become necessary 
that each wheel should depth into the next, 
having the same diameter; in this manner, 
however, the time necessary for the scape 
wheel to make its required number of revo¬ 
lutions, while the barrel wheel makes one 
revolution, could be obtained. This power 
may, indeed, be increased, if the actuation 
of the wheels upon the pinions be reversed, 
so that the latter act upon the former. For 
instance: A weight of 1 kilogram draws on 
a barrel of 72 millimeters in diameter; a 
pinion of 16 millimeters in place of the bar¬ 
rel wheel depths into a wheel of 48 millime¬ 
ters diameter; the arbor of this wheel carries 
a pinion of a diameter of 8 millimeters. The 
power with which this last pinion depths into 
the next wheel isi x 72 : 16x48 : 8 = 
26 kilograms. 

With such an arrangement, naturally, it 
would be possible to lift a heavy body by 
the expenditure of a little power, but it would 
go increasingly slower, the lighter the pon¬ 
derosity would become; because the weight 
of 1 kilogram would have to sink 679 milli¬ 
meters to revolve the pinion of 8 millimeters 
only once. In the case of clocks it does not 
so much depend upon the loss of time to in- 




94 


THE MOTIVE POWER OF CLOCKS. 


crease the power, but rather upon the gain 
of time, even if this cannot be effected in 
another manner than at the expense of power. 
Neither is it desirable to wind the clock every 
few minutes, nor yet to make the cord un¬ 
necessarily long; and for this reason the 
train is constructed in such a manner that, 
as already observed, the scape wheel has to 
make many revolutions while the barrel wheel 
rotates only once. 

CALCULATION OF THE TIME. 

Every timepiece, with regard to the pur¬ 
pose of its wheels, may be divided into three 
parts. The first part of the wheels, from the 
barrel wheel to the center wheel, solely con¬ 
ditions the length of time during which a 
clock can go without being rewound. 

The center wheel, upon the arbor of which 
sits the cannon pinion with the minute hand, 
must, since the hand has to accomplish its 
revolution in one hour, also revolve once in 
an hour. When, therefore, the pinion of the 
center arbor has 8 leaves and the barrel 
wheel 144, then the 8 pinion leaves, which 
makes one revolution per hour, would require 
the advancing of 8 teeth of the barrel wheel, 
which (8 : 144) is equal to the eighteenth 
part of its circumference. But when the 
eighteenth part in its advancing consumes 
1 hour, then the entire barrel wheel will con¬ 
sume 18 hours to accomplish one revolution. 
If, now, 10 coils of the weight cord were 
laid around the barrel, the clock would then 
run 10 x 18 = 180 hours, or 7*4 days, be¬ 
fore it is run down. 

Question .—How long will a clock run with 
8 coils of cord around the barrel—the barrel 
wheel having 144 teeth, the first wheel 84 
teeth, with a pinion of 12 leaves, the second 
wheel 80 teeth, with a pinion of 1 o leaves, 
and the center wheel having a pinion of 8 
leaves? 

Answer. — Iff- X X \°- x 9 = 9,072 

hours, or 378 days. 

The clock would therefore run 378 days. 

As will be seen from above example, the 
number of wheel teeth are multiplied with 
each other, and the same thing is done with 
the number of pinion leaves, after which the 
product of the former is divided by that of 
the latter, the result being the number of 
given hours of the clock with one coil of the 
cord. This number multiplied with that of 
the coils of the cord gives the entire time 
during which the clock will go until run 
down. 


CALCULATING THE TIME OF OSCILLATION, 

LENGTH OF PENDULUM, AND NUMBER OF 

OSCILLATIONS. 

The second part of the wheel work, from 
the center wheel to the escape wheel, is in 
the number of its teeth controlled by the 
length of the pendulum, and the reverse; 
the length of the pendulum is controlled by 
the proportion of the number of wheel teeth 
and pinion leaves of this second part. For 
instance, a seconds pendulum is to be used in 
a clock ; the center wheel can then be made 
with 64 teeth, the third wheel with 60 and a 
pinion of 8 leaves, the escape wheel with 30 
and a pinion of 8. The scape wheel, each 
tooth of its 30 teeth being dropped by the 
anchor after two beats (or 1 tooth every 2 
seconds), accomplishes its revolution in 60 
seconds, or x minute. The third wheel has 
meanwhile, as it gears into a pinion with 8 
teeth, only progressed (8: 60) the 71^ part 
of its circumference, and consequently would 
accomplish its entire revolution only in 7 y 2 
minutes. While the third wheel (the pinion 
of which has also 8 leaves) has made one 
revolution in 7^ minutes, the center wheel 
has advanced only by 8 teeth or (8 : 64) the 
one-eighth distance of its circumference, and 
would therefore consume 8 x 7}^ = 60 
minutes, until it accomplishes one revolution. 

With a proportion like the above, to wit, 
providing the scape wheel of a seconds pen¬ 
dulum with 30 teeth, a seconds hand can be 
mounted upon the arbor of the scape wheel, 
since the wheel makes one revolution in 60 
beats of the pendulum. Still, the proportion 
of the number of teeth can also be changed 
according to desire; for instance, center 
wheel, 60 teeth; third wheel, 50 teeth and 
a 10 leaf pinion; scape wheel, 60 teeth and 
a 10 leaf pinion; so that in this proportion, 
when the center wheel has made one revolu¬ 
tion, the third wheel has already (10 : 60) 
= 6 ; the scape wheel, however, at one rev¬ 
olution of the third wheel (10 : 50) could 
have made 5 revolutions ; consequently (5 x 
6) = 30 revolutions, while the center wheel 
has made one ; to reduce this to time would 
be equal to 30 revolutions in one hour. 
Naturally a seconds pendulum would have 
to be used for this arrangement, but no sec¬ 
onds hand could be mounted because the 
scape wheel would accomplish one revolution 
only in two minutes. 

Example .—To find the length of a pen¬ 
dulum when the center wheel has 72 teeth, 
the third wheel 60 teeth and a 6 leaf pinion, 


THE MOTIVE POWER OF CLOCKS. 


95 


and the scape wheel 30 teeth and a 6 leaf 
pinion. 

Since we know that the lengths of the pen¬ 
dulum are proportioned to each other in¬ 
versely as the squares of the numbers of 
oscillation, we calculate first how many oscil¬ 
lations the clock makes per hour, which we 
ascertain as follows: 

The center wheel makes one revolution 
per hour; the third wheel 6:72 = 12 rev¬ 
olutions; the scape wheel makes for each 
one revolution of the third wheel 6 : 60 = 
10 revolutions, or with 12 revolutions 10 x 
12 = 120 in one hour. Each tooth causes 
two beats, therefore the entire wheel 2 x 30 
= 60; consequently 120 revolutions cause 
60 x 120 = 7,200 oscillations. 

The entire calculation can be made shorter 
as follows: 

T X x X 60 = 7,200. 

As is well known, the length of a seconds 
pendulum is 994.07 millimeters, and makes 
3,600 oscillations per hour. Consequently 
is proportioned the square of 3,600 : to the 
square of 7,200 = x: 994.07 ; reducing this 
we have the square of 1 to the square of 2 = 
x: 994.07 ; or 1 x 1:2x2 = *: 994.07 ; 
consequently, 1 : 4 = x : 994.07, whereby 
we find that x = 248.51 millimeters. 

In place of the center wheel, any other 
wheel may occupy the center of the move¬ 
ment, and the seconds hand may be in the 
center of the dial. For instance, the center 
wheel has 64 teeth ; the first third wheel has 
60 teeth with an 8 leaf pinion; the second 
third wheel, upon the arbor of which the sec¬ 
onds hand is mounted, and which, therefore, 
has its place in the center, has 60 teeth with 
an 8 leaf pinion ; the scape wheel has 8 teeth 
with an 8 leaf pinion, and the number of os¬ 
cillations is: 

•V 1 X V X ^ X 16 = 7,200. 

The pendulum, therefore, as its time of 
oscillation is only one-half that of the seconds 
pendulum, has ^ x ^ ^ the length of 

the seconds pendulum, or 248.51 millimeters. 

The second third wheel, which here is the 
fourth wheel, makes in one hour (64 : 8 x 
60 : 8) = 60 revolutions ; therefore, one rev¬ 
olution per minute. The wheel must have 
60 teeth in order to divide the revolution 
more equally into seconds. The wheel pro¬ 
gresses one tooth per second. 

A table of the pendulum lengths is to be 
found in every work treating on horology, 
and therefore need not be reiterated here. 


TO FIT IN A SCAPE PINION. 

The next consideration is the scape pin¬ 
ion. Choose one that has been truly cut 
and well polished, notice particularly that the 
leaves are all of the same thickness; if not 
throw it away, it is of no use. Without dis¬ 
cussing how to pick out a pinion theoretic¬ 
ally correct with relation to the 4th wheel 
(which I will do in a subsequent article), I 
will just say, place the new pinion in the 
depthing tool, also the 4th wheel and pinion, 
and set the tool so that the points of the 
two centers are exactly the distance apart 
that the 4th and scape holes are, revolve the 
wheel and pinion, keeping a slight friction 
on scape pinion to be able to notice well 
the action, and see that when one tooth has 
finished its lead, the following one comes 
into action with the following leaf without 
a drop, and also that a butting action does 
not take place between a tooth and leaf by 
their coming in contact too soon before the 
line of centers. If such is the case the 
pinion is too large; if there is a drop, the 
pinion is too small. 

Insert the pinion in a chuck either by the 
arbor part, or by the pinion leaves, if the 
pinion will not run true when chucked on 
arbor part, in which case be careful in tight¬ 
ening up the chuck not to draw it up or 
tighten as you would on a plain piece of 
wire for bushing, as there would be the dan¬ 
ger of flattening the edges of the pinion, at 
the same time it can be chucked sufficiently 
tight to remain as placed, and without dam¬ 
aging the leaves. Turn the bottom end of 
arbor true, and finish the bottom pivot first, 
having its shoulder at such a distance from 
the face of the pinion that the 4th wheel will 
be about in the center of the leaves, consid¬ 
ered lengthwise, then reverse the pinion in 
the chuck, and mark the point in the up¬ 
per shoulder. This distance can be gotten 
several ways ; an inside measuring tool 
may be bought or made; if you possess 
a little ingenuity, one of your own make 
would be the best, or you could make it 
to suit all cases, while the one made for 
sale will not always enter sufficiently far 
between the plates. Another way is to 
take a piece of brass wire, filed perfectly 
flat, and make it of the requisite length, so 
that when introduced between the plates and 
resting on the scape jewels or surfaces the 
shake will be of the desired extent, and then 
measure with ordinary calipers from that; or 
the old pinion can be used as a guide by 


9 6 


RULES FOR DEPTHING. 


making the necessary allowance if the end- 
shake is too great, and still another way will 
sometimes answer, namely, measuring the 
length of the pallet staff, which occasionally 
is the same as the scape pinion. Of course 
these are only make-shift ways, and the 
proper way is to have a carefully made meas¬ 
uring gauge. Measure the total length and 
finish top pivot and the upper end of arbor 
for the scape wheel collet to fit on ; this must 
be slightly tapered, and turned very smooth 
and true and well polished, and great care 
must be taken not to get it so small that the 
scape collet will go down too far or be 
loose; this very defect often is the cause of 
poor motion and stoppages in English lev¬ 
ers, and in examining such watches for re¬ 
pairs, never neglect to grasp the scape pinion 
tightly and see that the scape wheel is not 
loose. Sometimes I have found that the 
hole in collet has been closed to one side, 
thereby causing the wheel to be out of true 
in the round, thus making a serious defect in 
wheel and pallet action. The proper way in 
such a case is to make a new collet. 


THE USE OF THE CUTTING BUR¬ 
NISHER. 

F OR the ordinary every-day watch, pivots 
and shoulders are sufficiently well fin¬ 
ished with a cutting burnisher, one side 
of which is rubbed on a board or strip of 
lead charged with emery, or a few rubs on 
the small stone used by shoemakers to whet 
their knives for leather cutting, is a handy 
substitute, and gives the requisite cutting 
power; and then a few rubs with a bur¬ 
nisher, polished on a well-used burnishing 
board, on which smooth emery has been dis¬ 
tributed, will give a perfectly smooth and 
black pivot. The best Clerkenwell pivoters 
finish their pivots with the smooth burnisher 
in this way to harden them, though they 
have been previously highly polished with a 
soft steel polisher which leaves the shoulder 
perfectly square and highly polished. 


SCREWED JEWELS. 

HE screwed jewel, against which sev¬ 
eral well-founded objections may be 
urged, may be improved in such a way as to 
make it much less liable to failure. There 
is not the slightest necessity for countersink¬ 
ing the screws in the upper plate; they 
might, without the least detriment to their 


functions, have flat heads, rounded at the 
top, as they merely serve to hold the jewel 
down in its place, thereby reserving the 
whole thickness of the plate for the hold of 
the screws. The jewel setting might be dot¬ 
ted, as usual, for always having it in its same 
place in its sink, which is not without impor¬ 
tance ; and if it should be thought necessary 
to insure this position of the jewel, even 
against careless repairers, who might not pay 
any attention to the dotting, this might easily 
be attained by drilling a very small hole in 
the bottom of the countersink, into which a 
pin might be driven, and for the reception 
of which the jewel setting ought to have a 
small groove. _ 

JEWELS IN WATCHES. 

MOVEMENT with plain set jewels is 
in no way inferior to one with screwed 
jewels, even in the very exceptional case of 
the replacement of a jewel hole. The move¬ 
ment with screwed jewels has a more ele¬ 
gant appearance, but it implies, if not done 
with the greatest care and discernment, a 
vast deal of trouble in the manufacturing, 
and still more so in the repairing. Not only 
must all the screws and jewels be taken out 
for thoroughly cleaning a watch and put in 
again, but the very little thickness in which 
the screws have to take their hold is a great 
source of annoyance to the repairer, especially 
in the English watches, with their thin upper 
plates of brass, rendered quite soft by gild¬ 
ing, and with screws of rather coarse threads. 
Any screw failing in its hold has to be replaced 
by one of the next number of threads having 
by its greater thickness still less chance of a 
sound hold, and very often it is necessary to 
make other holds at fresh places. If, now, 
the screwed jewel presents the advantage of 
easy replacement of a broken jewel without 
leaving any lasting mark of the operation, 
this small advantage may be considered to 
be neutralized by the above-mentioned draw¬ 
backs. 


RULES FOR DEPTHING. 

T may .be accepted as a rule that the 
following conditions are necessary for 
a good depthing: i. That the pinion be 
well proportioned to the wheel. 2. That 
both parts run true. 3. That this division 
be mathematically correct. 4. That the 
wheel teeth as well as the pinion leaves be 
shaped properly and in proportion to each 
other. 








THE ART OF TURNING. 


97 


TO INSPECT DEPTHINGS. 

HE depthing of watches, as they are 
invisible, are generally examined by 
the touch. This sort of examination, how¬ 
ever, requires practice of years, and even the 
experienced repairer may occasionally be de¬ 
ceived by a shallow depthing. Whenever it 
can be done, small holes should be opened 
for inspecting, to bring both the senses of 
sight and feeling into play. The examina¬ 
tion of the depthing in the depthing-tool 
cannot be recommended or relied on in all 
cases. _ 

VISIBLE DEPTHINGS. 

HEN the depthing can be seen pay 
attention to the following points: x. 
The wheel tooth must enter the pinion undis¬ 
turbed and with sufficient shake between the 
back of the wheel tooth and the next pinion 
leaf. 2. The first engagement, or the exact 
point of beginning of the driving, must take 
place on the line of center. This, however, 
is possible only with the center pinion in 
cylinder watches, and with ten or more leaf 
pinions. Those with a lower number of 
leaves will always have driving before the 
line of centers, which increases with the de¬ 
crease in the number of leaves. If the driv¬ 
ing occurs too far before this line of centers, 
it may either be caused by an unduly large 
pinion, or pinion leaves of unduly pointed 
rounding, and, finally, by too shallow a 
depthing. _ 

CARE IN REPAIRING. 

HEN you clean a watch, see that the 
holes are well pegged out and the 
pinions free from all foreign substances. 
Many watches of good construction fail to 
give satisfaction because some trifling fault 
has been overlooked by the over-quick work¬ 
man. A man may clean a watch in half an 
hour, and it may stop from the fact that the 
pinions are clogged with the abundance of 
chalk used in the process, or in the incon¬ 
siderate haste a loose jewel may be over¬ 
looked, or a screw left not fully turned in. 
Carelessness in adjusting the hairspring 
leaves the watch in such a condition that 
its owner cannot depend upon it. 


RECOURSE IN TIMING A WATCH. 

A LTHOUGH first-class watchmakers do 
. not admit of the process explained 
below, still, when the repairer is timing a 


medium or low-grade watch, he may have 
recourse to the following: When the watch 
gains in a horizontal position, and loses with 
pendant up, the ends of the pivots of the 
balance wheel may be flattened to increase 
the friction while lying down, so as to make 
the friction the same in that position as 
- when the pivots are rubbing against the sides 
of the pivot holes while the watch is in a ver¬ 
tical position. _ 

THE ART OF TURNING. 

HE art of turning with the bow and 
common turns is so valuable to the 
watch repairer, says M. Ganney, that no op¬ 
portunity should be lost by young watch¬ 
makers to acquire facility in this branch of 
the business, as advancing years render it 
almost impossible to atone for any neglect 
of this subject in early youth. A certain 
amount of daily practice is the only sure 
means of acquiring it, and it was at one 
time the usual plan of teaching a youth his 
business to let him have at least two hours 
a day at turning, as the ordinary watch 
repairing business, unlike escape making 
and finishing new work, does not give the 
opening for turning talent to be devel¬ 
oped ; and the supply of material now be¬ 
ing so prevalent, instead of making new 
pieces as required, it behooves all having 
apprentices to make provision in this respect 
by making the learner produce himself all 
screws, arbors, plugs and stoppings, and 
rough out, for the other workmen, the pieces 
that they finish and put into the watches. 
The spectacle, now too common, of young 
men who have served a number of years and 
quite unable to replace a broken piece of 
watch work, would become rare. The usual 
routine of large and small clock work to 
commence with, and finishing with coarse 
and fine watches, is admirably adapted to 
develop the mechanical ideas of the learner; 
but the turning must be supplemented with 
more than what is required ordinarily in 
the course of the business of watch repair¬ 
ing. 

Almost any sort of turns will do good piv¬ 
oting, the only requirement being rigidity 
of centers when fixed, and firmness in the 
rest, which must be brought as close to the 
work as possible, and the center that holds 
the pivot that is turning must be as close 
as possible to the hole in the turns. For 
this reason many pivoters prefer the plain¬ 
est possible turns with a piece of brass for 










9 8 


HAND TURNING IN WATCH WORK. 


a rest, having another piece of brass riv¬ 
eted on it, which is simply put against the 
turns, and the two screwed up in the vise, 
the work being brought close to the rest by 
the centers. This primitive and despised 
plan is better than using the Swiss turns, 
which being made to elongate so as to take 
in all sizes common to the various jobs in 
use, is deficient in the prime element of ri¬ 
gidity, and the rest that usually accompanies 
them is three times the width it ought to be, 
and should be filed away to allow the short¬ 
est possible amount of center to be used. 
When a long center projects the work invari¬ 
ably becomes loose, as the pressure on such 
a long lever is more than the binding screw 
can counteract. What are known as Eng¬ 
lish pivoting turns, when the rest is short¬ 
ened, answers all the requirements of fine 
turning, as the centers are held firm by the 
split hole in which they fit, being closed 
throughout its length on the center by a 
screw working from the back, and not liable 
to accidental disturbances by a touch in 
working, and all parts very strong and rigid. 
The centers usually supplied with turns are 
not of much use, as all the holes are made 
in the center of the steel, and this prevents 
the work coming close to the rest and ren¬ 
ders good or fine turning impossible, besides 
breaking both fine graver points and pivots 
by the vibration of the graver. Ordinary 
round steel must be fitted rather loosely, or, 
as dirt accumulates in the holes, there will 
be an amount of force required in moving 
the centers difficult to apply and dangerous 
to the work in hand, as the center must be 
moved lightly in all directions with one hand 
whilst the work is held lightly in position for 
fixing with the other. The back center 
must be a pointed one with only one hole 
or chamfer in it, made with a fine punch as 
near to the outer edge of the steel, when full 
size, as convenient. The surrounding steel 
must be all filed away with a half-round 
potence file, forming an irregular hollow 
cone for a quarter of an inch; this may be 
considered the finest or finishing back cen¬ 
ter, and should have a hole in which the 
finest pivot point can rotate without side 
motion. The other end of the center should 
be made a center of the same kind, but 
much stouter and larger, to hold an arbor, 
when the pinion is first commenced on for 
turning. The fine point to the center is to 
allow it to pass freely up any ferrule in which 
the work is held, and all strength compatible 


with freedom should be obtained, and the hole 
at the center being at the side or eccentric 
allows the work to be raised or lowered or 
brought close to the rest as may be desired, 
and also in a straight line with the holes in 
the other center at which it is being turned. 
The right hand center is simply left full size 
and both ends filed quite flat, and small dots 
made around its extreme edge with a sharp 
punch completes the apparatus for turning. 
The ends of all centers should be made red 
hot and plunged in w r ater; if hardened all 
over they may break when dropped or pulled 
roughly. One or two holes or dots may be 
made so close to the edge as to burst, or a 
slight nick cut, in which the point of a 
pivot rests, when being polished. As the 
various holes wear through they may be used 
for polishing pivots on, and holes that wear 
too deep and become dangerous thereby to 
the work by the friction they generate, must 
be restored to use by grinding the center on 
the oil-stone. Many neglect to harden cen¬ 
ters, but the advantages of hardening are 
very great—the friction is much less, and 
the constant wear and change of soft centers 
prevents the certainty and accumulation of 
experiences in the use of a tool which in¬ 
sures perfection in such a delicate operation 
as fine turning. Another center, called a 
centering one, is quickly made by filing the 
plain steel center as a right angle on each 
side with its face and cutting a recess on 
each side; an arbor or pinion point rest¬ 
ing on it, exposing its extreme end, may be 
truly centered by a very smooth old file; a 
new one will have too much power over 
it and push it off the center. Great light¬ 
ness and rapidity are necessary in centering 
truly. _ 

HAND TURNING IN WATCH WORK. 

T should be the fixed object of every 
young man, says Henry Bickley, who 
wishes to become a watchmaker to master 
the art of turning; not only because it will 
enable him, if a jobber, to work in new 
pieces with skill and precision—in itself an 
object worth striving for—but also because, 
in the process of learning to turn, the eye 
and the hand receive an education unattain¬ 
able by any other means. A thorough con¬ 
ception of form and truth, as well as deli¬ 
cacy of touch, are the outcome of the art 
of turning. Think how much the watch¬ 
makers’ art is dependent on the possession 
of these qualities, and but what a poor repre- 



HAND TURNING IN WATCH WORK. 


99 


sentative of the trade must he be who has 
them not! 

Turning, like all other branches of skill, 
can only be mastered by slow and patient 
effort, plodding onward step by step from 
the beginning. No hurry, no slurring of 
difficulties, but patiently attacking and van¬ 
quishing each as it arises. For want of 
proper grounding in the preliminary stages 
many men are never able to turn at all in 
the proper sense of the word. Badly taught, 
most likely, in the first instance, with no clear 
idea of what is required, and deprived of the 
practice without which they can never suc¬ 
ceed, they rush forward, evading the difficul¬ 
ties in their way instead of surmounting 
them, till the goal of their ambition, a bal¬ 
ance staff, is reached. It is unnecessary to 
say that the staff is usually a very bad one; 
its merits being quite undiscernible to any 
but the maker. He, however, is decidedly 
proud of the job. Has he not gained his 
ambition, what more is there to learn? And 
so he quietly subsides. This is no fancy 
picture. I have come across many such per¬ 
sons, who, when put to the test, have been 
unable to do anything, even to the making 
of a screw, in a satisfactory manner. 

There is no better mode of learning to turn 
than to practice first of all in soft steel or even 
brass till proper command is acquired of the 
graver and bow. The latter should be tol¬ 
erably strong to begin with, with good-sized 
steel wire and a large ferrule and graver. 
Then let the learner try to make a big screw, 
taking another screw as a copy. The wire 
must first be centered quite true, starting on 
the filing block and finishing on the center¬ 
ing runner, and a pivot turned on it to form 
the screw top. The graver must be held 
firmly on the rest at a point slightly above 
the center of the wire. In this apparently 
simple piece of work, if persevered in till it 
is properly done, the learner will take in four 
valuable lessons. He will learn in the first 
place to turn straight, as the pivot must be 
so formed if a proper thread is to be put on 
it; secondly, he will learn to turn squarely 
in forming the shoulder for the back of the 
screw head; thirdly, he will learn to turn to 
size, if he makes the screw tops, as he 
should do, to fit a certain hole in the 
screw plate; and lastly, and most impor¬ 
tant of all, he will learn to turn true. On 
this latter point I think it well to make a 
slight digression, having met with a strange 
confusion in some minds as to what consti¬ 


tutes truth in turning. We speak of a piece 
of work as being true when its circumfer¬ 
ence forms as nearly as possible a perfect 
circle—in other words, when it is round. 
Now, as the truth of the work as left from 
the graver depends entirely on the centers, 
it follows that if they are not round, neither 
will the work be ; especial care must there¬ 
fore be taken to fix the centers in the first 
instance. Lay the end of the piece on the 
centering runner, giving it a good speed with 
the bow, then turn along it for a short dis¬ 
tance and carefully observe it; if the center 
and the part turned over do not seem round, 
turn and center it again. If the piece be 
much out of round, turn off the extreme point 
to form a new center before running it with 
the file, repeating the operation till perfect 
truth is obtained. This must of course be 
done to both centers, and frequent observa¬ 
tion made of them during the progress of the 
work. Want of care and observation, even 
at the last moment, may cause a good piece of 
work to be spoiled ; for if the centers should 
get but the slightest degree out, the part 
turned last—which in a finished piece is al¬ 
ways the pivot—will be oval, and its effect¬ 
iveness, in any case seriously diminished, 
will in a balance staff be destroyed. Thus 
far as to centers and centering. This little 
digression will not be lost, as I have met 
with inexperienced persons who have thought 
and argued that, because a thing is true to 
the center it must of necessity be true, a 
fallacy that in some instances had taken 
deeper root than I should have thought pos¬ 
sible. 

But to return to the screw making. From 
large screws the learner should gradually pass 
on to small ones, adapting his bow and fer¬ 
rule to the work as he goes along; and when 
he can make a jewel screw quite true, with a 
good thread, and a well-shaped head with 
the shoulder at the back turned clean and 
square, without either lump or nick in the 
corner, he may think, as regards soft metal, 
that he has done very well. It seems in 
some respects a pity that material for repair¬ 
ing is now so easily obtained. In days 
gone by, when screws were wanted for job¬ 
bing (and for new work, too, for that matter) 
they were made by the apprentice, who, by 
this means, got an amount of useful instruc¬ 
tion and practice in turning he does not get 
now. I know I shall be told that to make 
screws when they can be bought for almost 
next to nothing does not pay, that time is 


I 00 


HAND TURNING IN WATCH WORK. 


money, and so forth. To this I reply that 
skill must be paid for in some shape or other, 
that youth is the time to acquire it, when 
the perceptions are quick and time not so 
valuable as afterwards, and that if the young 
watch jobbers of to-day are to learn turning 
at all, they must do as all the best men in the 
trade have had to do—begin at the beginning. 
Besides, to take the matter on its merits, I am 
not sure that it would not often be cheaper 
to make screws than to buy them. The 
screws, as we get them, usually want so 
much alteration, that to one who can handle 
his tools the making of a screw would take 
very little, if any, longer than the fitting of 
one. 

Having so far mastered the making of 
screws, the learner may now try his hand at 
tempered steel, following much the same 
procedure as with the soft metal. A piece 
of good-sized steel wire should be rough- 
centered on the filing block, hardened and 
brought back on the bluing pan till toler¬ 
ably soft. A light blue color will give about 
the right temper: if left harder than this it 
will be liable to glaze easily and give trouble. 
After centering it in the manner just de¬ 
scribed, turn a good-sized pivot with the 
point of the graver, keeping it straight and 
the shoulder clean and square. Begin with 
pivots as large as the No. io hole in La- 
tard’s screw plate, and do not reduce them 
in size till able to make them of a good shape 
with the point of the graver, smooth and 
quite true. Then gradually make them 
smaller, proceeding by easy stages till the 
smallest sizes are reached. The same re¬ 
marks apply to conical pivots as to straight 
ones—the learner must begin with large 
ones and gradually work his way, striving in 
all cases to produce the exact shape required. 
Not only pivots, but all the different forms 
to be seen on staffs and pinions, such as 
back slopes, hollows, etc., should be prac¬ 
ticed on rough steel. One of the most diffi¬ 
cult lessons for the learner is the turning in 
of pieces, such as staffs and pinions, to exact 
height or length to meet an end-shake. It is 
very mortifying, when the piece is completed, 
to find that it is too long or too short, and 
very elaborate and ingenious gauges have 
been constructed to overcome this among 
other difficulties. But it is at least doubtful 
if some of these instruments are not calcu¬ 
lated to make the learner’s troubles greater 
instead of less. Gauges, to be really useful, 
must be simple ; and it may be said of them, 


almost more than of any other tool, that 
there is as much in the use as in the con¬ 
struction. There is really but one way of 
meeting these difficulties, and that is by at¬ 
tacking them systematically. It is too much 
to expect that a youth, so soon as he can 
hold a graver, should be able to execute 
work requiring great nicety of judgment, 
even with the aid of the finest gauges. Let 
him take an old frame and practice fitting 
pieces by copying the old staffs and pinions. 
The pinion gauge, or a space filed in a piece 
of sheet brass, will be the only gauge neces¬ 
sary at first. 

Take one of the pinions that has a proper 
end-shake in the frame and measure off the 
distance between the pivot shoulders; if the 
end-shake is wrong, adjust the gauge to 
correct it. Then turn pivots on either end 
of a piece of steel, with the shoulders a 
proper distance apart to fit the gauge. The 
correctness of the height will of course be 
proved by trying it on the frame. Only 
large pivots should be made at first, and, 
the height having been struck in the gauge, 
care must be taken in turning the pivots not 
to back the shoulders. It is just at this 
point that learners generally fail: in turning 
the pivots they cut into the shoulders and 
get the piece too short, or, anxious to avoid 
this, they allow for it and leave the piece 
too long. It is work, as I have said, call¬ 
ing for nice judgment with a keen apprecia¬ 
tion of trifles, and must be gone over many 
times before the worker becomes thoroughly 
familiar with it. Making a pallet staff to a 
full-plate lever watch is capital practice in 
this kind of work. Before knocking out the 
old staff, take accurate measurement of the 
height of the top pivot shoulder above the 
lever, also of the length of the staff between 
the two shoulders. Take a thin piece of tem¬ 
pered steel wire and turn it down a sufficient 
length to form the staff, fitting it to the hole 
in the pallets and keeping it slightly taper; 
polish and glass-burnish it; then gently 
drive it tight into the pallets and mark off 
the height for the top shoulder; remove the 
pallets and make the pivots, being careful 
that they fit the holes with very little side- 
shake. The next step should be to practice 
making pivots, straight and conical, to jewel 
holes. The pivots, to be quite true, must 
be turned the exact shape, and, as nearly as 
possible, to the right size before being pol¬ 
ished or burnished. 

All this should be preliminary to making 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATHE. 


101 


balance staffs, fitting cylinders, and such like 
ambitious efforts; so that, when these higher 
parts are reached, the ground round about 
will be so far cleared as to make their accom¬ 
plishment comparatively easy. It has been 
said that no one can claim to be master of 
an art till he can play with it. As applied 
to watch-making this can only be a half-truth, 
as our work is not of a kind to be played 
with. But, stated in another form, the idea 
is true enough : for in watch-making, as in 
other things, mastery only comes with a com¬ 
plete loss of self-consciousness, when, from 
long and constant practice, the faculties 
move together in unison without apparent 
effort. To all, therefore, who would excel in 
turning, my last words would be:—begin at 
the beginning, make sure of each step as you 
advance, and work away. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATHE. 

R. AMBROSE WEBSTER, the head 
of the American Watch Tool Co., con¬ 
tributes the following article to the Jewel¬ 
ers’ Circular on the subject of above head¬ 
ing, upon which he, of all others, is perhaps 
the best qualified to speak. He says: 

There is no tool on the watchmaker’s 
bench that is so expensive, valuable, or at¬ 
tractive as a nickel-plated American watch¬ 
maker’s lathe. It is expensive because in its 
construction, though there is a comparatively 
small amount of material used, a large 
amount of expensive labor is necessary. It 
is valuable because it is ready for use at a 
moment’s notice, and furnishes the capability 
to polish pivots and staffs, and perform any 
of the numerous operations so constantly re¬ 
quired in the repairing of watches. It is at¬ 
tractive through its highly bright appearance 
and delicacy and beauty of form. Through 
this attractiveness, the lathe proves of value 
as an advertisement to the owner, for, when 
a customer, upon entering his shop, discerns 
the neat and trim American lathe, instead of 
the rough-looking affairs he remembers were 
universally used in his youth, he argues that 
the possessor of the better tools must per¬ 
form the better work. The efficiency of the 
American lathe is undeniable; skilled work¬ 
men agree that they can do from 20 per 
cent, to 25 per cent, more with it than with 
the old styles. The best manufactures have 
been copied in England, France, Germany, 
and Switzerland. 

As very few watch repairers ever consider 


the progressive steps in the development of 
the lathe from its original form used in pre¬ 
historic ages, down to its present perfect 
construction, I think a review of this step in 
simple outline, will prove of interest and 
value. In the first illustration the crude, 
primitive lathe is depicted. It will be no¬ 
ticed that the article to be turned has both 
its ends, or bearings, fastened in the fork of 
two trees, and is revolved by a crank. The 
operator, or turner, holds the cutting tool 
against the revolving object, his hands rest¬ 
ing on the fork of a tree-branch, which is 
driven into the earth. 

There are several minor stages between 
the primitive form and the ingenious Egyp¬ 
tian lathe; but, my space being limited, I 
will hurry to a description of this machine. 
The Egyptian lathe for centuries was in uni¬ 
versal use ; and, even at the present moment, 
in some out-of-the-way places still exists. 
It was originally made wholly of rough 
wood, and was composed of a spindle and 
pulley mounted upon a stand, looking more 
like the frame-work of the door of a log-cabin 
than a piece of machinery. The power for 
driving this lathe was as follows: a cord 
was at one end fastened to the pulley, the 
other end being tied to a branch of an ad¬ 
jacent tree, which was bent downward to 
form a spring. A pressure of the foot in 
the stirrup produced a forward rotary motion 
which was reciprocated backward by the re¬ 
lease of the foot-pressure and the recoil of 
the tree-branch, the continual pressures and 
releases producing a constant reciprocal ro¬ 
tary motion. As years became generations, 
and generations centuries, the material used 
in the manufacture of these machines, as seen 
in the illustration, was to change to iron, 
the principle of regenerating power remained 
essentially the same, a springy pole being 
used instead of a tree-branch. The Egyp¬ 
tian lathe has entirely disappeared in Amer¬ 
ica, but, as I have said, still exists in remote 
parts of Europe. 

Until quite recent days, the fiddle-bow 
was almost every watchmaker’s principal 
tool, and is now utilized by many mechanics. 
This was, or rather is, but a modification of 
the reciprocal rotary motion in the Egyptian 
lathe. It is too widely known to bear profit¬ 
ably a description at this day. 

This final stage, the fully developed ma¬ 
chine, is shown in the last illustration, which 
gives an improved foot-wheel, driving to a 
countershaft, and from the latter to the lathe. 




102 


HOW TO FIT WATCH HANDS. 


Every watchmaker’s lathe should be set up 
thus to exercise its full value to the workman. 

To consider some of the essentials of a 
perfect lathe. As is known, every article 
turned will be of the form of the bearing of 
the spindle; consequently, if the bearing is 
not perfectly round, the article cannot be 
perfectly round ; the shoulders of the spindle 
must be perfectly true, or the truth of the 
turned article will be affected ; the spindle of 
the lathe should revolve with uniform free¬ 
dom, and must not have hard spots during 
the revolution; the general use of spring 
chucks requires that the mouth and throat of 
the lathe shall be perfectly true and both 
hard, and that the chucks shall be hard, 
and ground true after hardening; the tail- 
stock spindle should also be perfectly 
straight and round, and fit accurately 
in the hole. The process of binding the 
spindle must not have any effect upon its 
alignment; it is also absolutely necessary 
that the fine point of the tail-stock shall ac¬ 
curately match and align with the point of 
the center of the head-stock, to secure which 
end very expensive tools and machines have 
been made, adding largely to the general 
cost of the lathe. The latter essential, capa¬ 
ble of fulfilment in a lathe, proves the lathe 
to be fairly perfect in construction. Some 
manufacturers are producing a lathe in which 
the tail-stock may be reversed upon its bed, 
and either end perfectly align with the head- 
stock. 

Notwithstanding that lathes possessing 
the above qualities cost fifteen per cent, 
more than those built without particular care, 
the difference in the efficiency of the two 
varieties is a larger per cent, than that of the 
difference in cost. Every investor hopes for 
the return of a good dividend, and experience 
has proved that a perfect lathe pays an an¬ 
nual dividend of fifty per cent. 


TO EXAMINE A WATCH. 

EFORE you take a watch down ex¬ 
amine the action of the balance wheel, 
and you will quite often find it to be rubbing 
slightly on the center wheel, the stud, or the 
curb pins ; push the balance in several direc¬ 
tions with a peg, and freely apply the file to 
the offending pieces. If center wheel and 
balance are touching, consider the balance 
foul, and after taking it out, screw the cock 
on, and drive it over with a blow on a box¬ 


wood peg with the hammer; but be sure 
that the required freedom is attained, and 
that the balance is free of both the stud and 
regulator in all positions. 


THE TRAIN OF WHEELS. 

XAMINE the train of the wheels. If 
the scape-wheel depthing is too shal¬ 
low, as often happens when there is much 
side-shake, drive the scape-bridge by press¬ 
ure from behind, if freedom should allow, 
the second pivot hole being very shallow. A 
pivot broach pressed by the finger under¬ 
neath in opening the hole will cut away one 
side of the hole, into which a French bouchon 
must be inserted and riveted, and then we 
have a depthing as the result of a few mo¬ 
ments’ work, the wheel being uprighted by 
driving the cock in the customary manner. 


FINAL REVIEWS. 

HEN the repairer has corrected the de¬ 
fects and cleaned the watch, and is 
about to mount it, let him look to the oil- 
sinks, that they are thoroughly clean, inspect 
the jewel-holes to see that they are highly 
polished and firmly set, that the screws are 
all securely fastened, and when he finds 
everything in order, he may commence to 
mount the pieces. 


HOW TO FIT WATCH HANDS. 

HE fitting on of a watch hand, al¬ 
though slighted in many shops, is a 
job deserving of a great deal more care than 
is generally bestowed upon it, and even re¬ 
pairers who take pains with their work neg¬ 
lect several important points. They leave 
the pipe of the hour wheel too long and that 
of the minute hand too short, and when they 
adjust the end-shake of the hour hand, they 
lay the boss on the hour wheel and the dial 
so that the end-shake of the center wheel 
affects that of the hour hand, sometimes giv¬ 
ing it too much, and the hour hand is bent 
by catching the minute hand either in setting 
the hands or in the going of the watch. In 
fitting the hands to a hunting case, the ex¬ 
aminer should fit the glass as high as the 
case will admit; ascertain the space available 
by placing a piece of beeswax on the dial 
and pressing the glass down on it, and then 
turning the cannon pinion until it projects 










PRINCIPAL INVENTIONS IN HOROLOGY. 


103 


from the dial the height of the beeswax. 
The hour-wheel pipe should rise perceptibly 
above the dial, and the end-shake of the 
hour hand be adjusted by the pipe of the 
minute hand and that of the hour wheel. If 
the body of the cannon pinion will not bear 
turning in fitting it to the hour wheel, then 
it should be opened in the mandrel, as it can¬ 
not be kept true by opening the hole in the 
fingers. _ 

TO REPAINT THE HOURS ON A DIAL. 

HE following system has reference to 
metallic dials, but the reader will be able 
to select without difficulty the parts that are 
applicable to altering and retouching the 
figures on an enamel dial. We can answer 
from experience for its being successful, but 
would at once observe that it cannot be 
practiced hastily, because some skill is essen¬ 
tial in addition to patience and care; with 
them success is certain. Before removing 
the hour figures and the division for minutes, 
mark them with a fine steel point, using a 
lens and proceeding with great caution. 
These marks will remain, so that after the 
dial has been colored or otherwise treated, it 
will only be necessary to trace over them with 
a fine brush charged with ink. The short 
horizontal lines at the top and bottom of each 
figure, termed “ serifs,” as well as the two cir¬ 
cles that enclose the minute division, can be 
drawn with a sharpened point of the screw- 
bar compass. _ 

LIFTING SPRINGS. 

IFTING springs of watch cases are often 
broken. If the watchmaker has none 
of the right size on hand, and has no time 
to make a new one, he can mend the old 
spring and have it just as good as new. 
Place them close together and bind firmly 
to a piece of charcoal; then solder with 
18-karat gold. It requires a strong heat 
and plenty of borax; next finish off nicely, 
heat, and temper in the usual manner. 


SPOTTING. 

HE process of finishing chronometer 
and watch plates, by polishing thereon 
equidistant patches, is called by different 
names: spotting, snailing, smoothing, ston¬ 
ing, damaskeening, frosting, etc. The plate 
to be spotted is fixed to the top of a slide 
rest, and the marks are made with a small 
bone or ivory tube, which screws into the 


bottom of the upright spindle. The mate¬ 
rial used to produce the pattern is a mixture 
of oil-stone dust and sharp rouge. The plate 
when fixed in position on the platform of 
the tool is dabbed all over with the end of 
the finger dipped in this composition, which 
must not be at all dry or thick. This up¬ 
right spindle carrying the spotter is kept 
constantly rotating by a band from a foot 
wheel. A spiral spring round the arbor of 
the spotter keeps it off the work, and a little 
pressure on a knob at the top brings the 
spotter into action. The pattern is made by 
turning the handle of the slide rest equal 
amounts after each spot until a row is fin¬ 
ished, and then moving the transverse slide 
an amount equal to the pitch of the pattern. 

A wavy or watered spotting is produced 
with water-of-Ayr stone and oil, carefully 
prepared, or with a piece of wood charged 
with oil-stone dust, etc. The oiled corner of 
an emery buffstick can occasionally be used. 

To obtain wavy undulations on a smooth 
•piece of metal, the finger should first be 
placed at the point of commencement of the 
undulations. Resting the wood or stone 
against this finger, it is moved a little in a 
straight line, and then in a series of semicir¬ 
cular wave lines, from right to left or left 
to right. The finger is advanced through 
a definite distance, and the operation re¬ 
peated, and so on. 

A very good watered surface can be pro¬ 
duced with soft charcoal. With a view to 
increasing the regularity in the marks, a rule 
may be laid on the object, against which the 
charcoal is brought. Parallel watering is 
usually done mechanically, in about the same 
manner. _ 

PRINCIPAL INVENTIONS IN 
HOROLOGY. 

HE JEWELERS’ CIRCULAR is fre¬ 
quently asked concerning the dates of 
the principal inventions in horology, and it 
has therefore compiled them in a chrono¬ 
logical form, which is as nearly correct as 
patient research can make it. It appears, 
however, that the old masters were not as 
eager to obtain a patent for every displace¬ 
ment of a screw or introduction of a pin, as 
our modern watchmakers are, but were con¬ 
tent with the knowledge of having introduced 
a new escapement, a new arrangement of 
wheels, etc., without letting everybody know 
who did it. The invention of the balance 
spring is ascribed to several; the detached 










104 


CEMENT FOR REPAIRING A DIAL. 


lever escapement is claimed both by Switzer¬ 
land and England ; the duplex escapement 
is said to have been invented by Dr. Hooke ; 
Pierre Leroy; Dutertre, another French 
watchmaker; again, that it was introduced 
into England by Thomas Tyrer, after whom 
it was also called Tyrer’s escapement; and, 
finally, that it was invented by an English¬ 
man, named Duplex. The reader may 
choose. 

Watchmakers of the past century, aided 
by advancing education, gradually began to 
comprehend more fully the power and adap¬ 
tability, of wheels and pinions; new escape¬ 
ments were planned and existing ones im¬ 
proved ; no less than one hundred and eight 
are preserved in our various watch collec¬ 
tions. The greatest impulse, however, was 
given by the introduction of the pendulum, 
claimed both by Huyghens (pronounced 
Hoyghens) and Galileo, and the balance 
spring, most probably by Dr. Hooke. The 
interesting series of inventions commences 
with the date of the application of the pend¬ 
ulum to clocks, 1656. 

1658. Dr. Hooke invents and applies the 
balance spring. 

1675. Barlow and Quare, of London, 
construct the repeating timepiece, first for 
mantel-clocks, next for watches. The for¬ 
mer, a priest, furnishing the plans, the latter, 
a watchmaker, executing the work. Besides 
this, the invention is also claimed by 
Tompion. 

1680. Dr. Robert Hooke constructs the 
recoil escapement for clocks. 

1691. Daniel Quare applies the minute 
hand. As watchmakers well know, the time¬ 
piece had only one hand until then. 

1 700. Graham invents the mercury pend¬ 
ulum. 

1702. Graham invents the dead-beat or 
“ Graham ” escapement, and the cylinder 
escapement. 

1704. Fatio, of Geneva, introduces watch 
jeweling, for which he receives an English 
patent , No. 371, A fay, 1704. 

1720. Harrison, the “extraordinary gen¬ 
ius,” invents the maintaining power. 

1726. Harrison constructs the compen¬ 
sated gridiron pendulum. 

1754. Caron de Beaumarchais invents the 
pin escapement for watches, which is claimed 
by Lepaute, but after a lawsuit awarded to 
the former. 

1754. Mudge invents the detached-lever 
escapement. 


1760. Ellicott constructs a peculiar com¬ 
pensation pendulum. 

1761. Harrison, sixty-seven years old, in¬ 
vents the first marine chronometer. 

1765. Pierre Leroy invents the compen¬ 
sated balance. 

1770. Stodges constructs the half-quar¬ 
ter repeating escapement, mostly used in 
English watches. 

1770. Duplex, an Englishman, invents the 
escapement named for him. 

1780. Arnold invents the marine chro¬ 
nometer with detent escapement. 

1780. Earnshaw constructs the spring- 
detent escapement and the compensated 
balance, both substantially as now used in 
chronometers. 

1792. Breguet invents the tourbillon es¬ 
capement. 

It was stated above that one hundred and 
eight distinct escapements have been con¬ 
structed. Four of these only withstood the 
touchstone of time, viz., detached lever, cyl¬ 
inder, chronometer, and verge, the latter of 
which is fast becoming obsolete. Of the 
remaining three escapements again, the 
chronometer is used with but few exceptions 
for marine timepieces, while the cylinder is 
used only sectionally for cheap grades of 
watches. We therefore may sum up by say¬ 
ing that there is only one universal escape¬ 
ment—the detached lever. 


TO CLEAN CORAL. 

IRST soak them in soda and water for 
some hours; then make a lather of 
soap, and, with a soft hair brush, rub the 
corals lightly, letting the brush enter into all 
the interstices. Pour off the water, and re¬ 
place with clean water. Finally dry in the 
sun. 


CEMENT FOR REPAIRING A DIAL. 

CRAPE pure white wax, and mix with 
equal parts of zinc white; next, melt 
the mass in a clean vessel over the alcohol 
flame, and let get cold. The cold cement 
can be easily pressed into the cracks of the 
slightly warmed dial, and adheres firmly, 
assuming a high polish when scraped with a 
knife. If the cement has become too hard, 
add a little wax; if still too soft, a little 
zinc white. Cleanliness in mixing and a little 
heat contribute to the production of a very 
white wax. 







THE TREATMENT OF GOLD, SILVER, ETC. 


THE MISSION OF THE GOLDSMITH. 

HE goldsmith expresses in his works 
the sentiment and culture of his age. 
The more exalted this sentiment, the purer 
are the conceptions, and the more artistic 
the works of the goldsmith. A sober and 
ignorant age also produces only a miserable 
treatment of the precious metals. Depraved 
taste does not understand to array itself in 
an artistic manner; its low vanity is satisfied 
with coarse, unwieldy trinkets, or the glitter¬ 
ing ornament of a boastful, pretentious style ; 
it overloads itself with bulk, with which it 
strives to impose. 

The goldsmith was originally only a smith, 
who fashioned gold and silver into useful 
shapes, as the latter does iron. Growing 
culture, however, in individual people not 
only awakened a desire for the possession of 
useful articles from the precious metals, but 
the possessor also wished to have its value 
augmented by more exquisite work so that, 
as it were, the possessor would be distin¬ 
guished among men by his superior orna¬ 
ments. The kings demanded diadems, the 
heroes golden shields and weapons, the 
nobles handsome dishes and vessels for their 
tables, the priests gold and silver ornaments 
for the temples, and the ambitious citizen, 
finally, desired spangles and bracelets, rings 
and chains, to serve as a noble distinguishing 
mark of his self-respect. The tradesman of 
whom all these demands were made exerted 
his taste and ingenuity to always produce 
something better and purer. The goldsmith 
no longer cast his trinkets, but gave them finer 
forms by hammering according to models; 
he embellished them by engraving into them 
and chasing upon them arabesques, flowers, 
figures, and entire pictures, and still enhanced 
this style by adorning these designs with 
jewels; he skillfully added single pieces to 


form a whole by choosing different sub¬ 
stances—silver, gold, ivory, and jewels; he 
invented enamel. And thus the tradesman 
became an artist, one of the highest rank. 
He was called on to adorn architecture, and 
became the chief auxiliary of the architect, 
the sculptor, the painter. The Bible and 
many historians of the Greek speak of this 
rise of the art of goldsmithing among the old 
nations of culture. Solomon’s temple glit¬ 
tered in the pride of gold adornment. Ho¬ 
mer exalts the golden arms of Glaucus, and 
the inlaid shield of Achilles. Semiramis 
caused gold and silver statues to be erected, 
and the greatest of all Greek artists, Phidias, 
was a goldsmith, who built temples, and in 
them placed statues of the gods in a hitherto 
unknown perfection. In Samos, Corinth, 
and Athens, the most excellent goldsmiths 
manufactured those vessels, ornaments, and 
masterpieces for which the Romans afterward 
paid incredible sums, and which we marvel 
at to-day, as the proof of the eminence of 
an art vocation. 

As previously stated, the goldsmith charac¬ 
terizes in his productions the grade of culture 
both of his people and age. During the 
flourishing period of Greece, we find it upon 
the highest pinnacle of the art; gradually it 
declines, commensurate with the increase of 
ignorance and wars, and finally the sun of 
culture sets behind them. In Rome, where 
the conceptions of the ideal languished and 
perished in the viciousness of the emperors 
and the brutality of the people, the goldsmith 
finally becomes the panderer simply for the 
senseless, boastful lavishness, and his art 
becomes nothing else than a gradually de¬ 
generating imitation of Greek works. He- 
liogabalus adorned his room with gold, onlv 
dined from gold plates, drank out of gold 
and silver vessels, which he presented to his 




GOLD AND ITS TREATMENT IN SMELTING AND ROLLING. 


106 

companions, servants, and the hungry mul¬ 
titude before his palace, after nocturnal 
orgies; he caused gold dust to be strewn in 
his path, in order to show that he, as the first 
of Rome, could waste its possession and 
blood. But art had no companionship with 
this senseless waste, until, after a night of a 
thousand years, a new era began to dawn 
upon it, and as long as the merciful mission 
of Christendom shall exist the art of the 
goldsmith will also not perish. 


GOLD AND ITS TREATMENT IN 
SMELTING AND ROLLING. 

E will here state that it is our desire to 
go through a kind of apprenticeship in 
respect to the processes employed in the 
manufacture of gold. We hope that the in¬ 
formation thus afforded, beside being very 
valuable to the practical workman, by giving 
him facilities which will result in the more 
successful performance of his work, will 
prove useful to the manufacturer also, by im¬ 
parting to him that with which he has hitherto 
been unacquainted. We shall lay most stress 
upon those processes of art workmanship and 
management in which we venture to believe 
we have been more successful than most of 
our compeers. 

We shall commence with the first proced¬ 
ures in the course of the manufacture, viz.: 
the preparation of the alloy and its subse¬ 
quent treatment in the crucible, in order to 
describe minutely the processes or methods 
of working with the precious metals. 

When purchasing the materials for alloy¬ 
ing, where a fair average trade is being car¬ 
ried on, there is an advantage in buying cop¬ 
per in large quantities; but with gold and 
silver the reverse is the case. Irrespective 
of the disadvantage of the cash lying idle, 
gold being always bought for cash, some of 
its particles are so fine and minute that every 
time it is moved about or touched some por¬ 
tion is sure to be lost; the quantity may, per¬ 
haps, be very small indeed, but when we 
take into consideration the extremely valu¬ 
able nature of gold in the above state, the loss 
in the course of the year may be something 
amazing. For these and other reasons which 
could be adduced, we recommend the pur¬ 
chase of gold at the time it is needed, and 
sufficient for the purposes required. 

In preparing the mixture of gold, silver, 
and copper for the crucible care should be 


taken in weighing them accurately in order 
to prevent improvement or deterioration in 
the qualities of the gold constantly in use. 
In melting all qualities it is a wise plan to 
place the lightest of the metals to be melted 
at the bottom of the crucible, viz.: the cop¬ 
per first, the silver next, and the gold last; 
by so doing the melter is more likely to get 
a perfect amalgamation of the metals, as the 
gold, being the heaviest, is sure to find its 
way to the bottom of the pot. When spelter 
is employed it must not be put in until the 
other metals are melted; being of so vol¬ 
atile a nature, it would be all evaporated 
before the mixture of alloy was properly in¬ 
corporated, consequently the bar of gold 
would fall short of its original weight, the 
quality would be improved, and the manu¬ 
facturer would be unable to compensate him¬ 
self without remelting with an addition of 
alloy. 

Plumbago crucibles are the best for all 
practical melting purposes, and with care 
will last from twenty to fifty times; if new, 
a very small quantity of charcoal powder 
should be put into the pot with the mixture 
of alloy. This coats the surface of it, and 
prevents the metals from adhering. When the 
gold is at the point of fusion, fling on it about 
a tablespoonful of perfectly pure vegetable 
charcoal. The layer of charcoal which forms 
upon the surface of the gold in the crucible 
protects the mixture from the action of the 
air, which would refine the gold by destroy¬ 
ing some of the alloy. When perfectly fused, 
the mixture must be well stirred with an iron 
stirrer (consisting of a long round piece of 
iron sharpened at the point), which should 
previously be made red hot, to render the 
whole mass uniform in quality. The pot is 
then quickly withdrawn, and its contents 
poured into a suitable ingot-mold, previously 
warmed and greased, to prevent adhesion. 
The warming of the mold is quite indispen¬ 
sable ; but, if made too hot, the metal, when 
poured into it, will spit and fly about; be¬ 
sides incurring great loss of gold, danger¬ 
ous results may thereby happen to the per¬ 
son in charge ; the same remark applies when 
the ingot-mold is cold; this part of the pro¬ 
cess must therefore not be neglected, but 
carefully attended to. The ingot-mold, we 
may state, is hot enough when you can just 
touch it with the hand for a second or two. 
In nine cases out of ten, if the gold is properly 
heated in the melting and cast all right with 
the charcoal flux we have recommended, the 




GOLD AND ITS TREATMENT IN SMELTING AND ROLLING. 


working qualities in its subsequent treatment 
will be found all that could be desired for 
any purposes whatever. 

When it is desired to produce very tough 
gold, use as a flux a tablespoonful of char¬ 
coal, as before, and one of sal-ammoniac, 
adding it to the gold on the eve of melting; 
the sal-ammoniac burns away while toughen¬ 
ing the gold, leaving the charcoal behind to 
perform the functions already indicated. The 
employment of the mixture of sal-ammoniac 
will bring the ingots of gold up bright and 
clear; it will also prevent them from splitting 
or cracking at the rolling-mill, and in subse¬ 
quent working ; if proper attention has been 
paid to it, the gold will then be found tough 
and pliable. This does not, however, apply 
to every kind of alloy, but it may be affirmed 
of those we have described, and can be safely 
and thoroughly depended upon. 

The furnace used by most jewelers is the 
ordinary wind furnace, built of brick-work, 
which is admirably suited for such purposes; 
a size convenient for every requirement is of 
the following dimensions : eight inches square 
inside, and sixteen inches deep from the 
grate which supports the fire. 

For producing tough gold, the employ¬ 
ment of common salt as a fluxing agent is 
sometimes strongly recommended. There is 
not, however, much to be said for its use, as 
it produces a very liquid flux, and is not half 
so clean as the one we have recommended. 
In the casting, unless very great care is ex¬ 
ercised, it runs into the ingot-mold with the 
gold, producing a brittle-like substance, and 
this forces itself into the bar of gold, the sur¬ 
face of which becomes irregular and full of 
holes; on this account alone it is objection¬ 
able, in preparing clean and smooth bars of 
gold. The same may be said of borax, but 
that is still largely used in the jewelry trade 
for melting purposes. Nevertheless we are 
confident, from long practical experience 
(the result of many years’ study and practice, 
during which time we have worked up many 
thousand ounces of gold), that there is no 
better flux than a mixture of sal-ammoniac 
and charcoal, for every possible purpose re¬ 
quired, in the subsequent treatment of the 
different qualities of gold ; and that for tough¬ 
ness, cleanliness, and producing good worka¬ 
ble properties it cannot be surpassed. 

In melting scrap gold from the workshop, 
care should be taken to see that it is quite 
clean and free from organic matter, wax, etc. 
To effect this it is a good plan to heat the 


1 °7 

scrap in an iron ladle until all wax or grease 
is removed; this should be done before the 
workman weighs his scrap into the ware¬ 
house, and should be a special rule of every 
establishment. It has a great tendency to 
reduce the working loss, which is almost un¬ 
avoidable. This kind of scrap is best re¬ 
melted by itself, and the same flux may be 
employed as has been recommended for new 
gold ; if the bar of gold should split in rolling, 
it is due to the presence of some foreign 
metal, such as lead or tin, or it may be iron 
or steel. Then remelt the bar with two parts 
carbonate of potash and one part of nitrate 
of potash (saltpeter), the saltpeter wall draw 
the iron or steel into the flux, leaving the 
alloy of gold free. If lead or tin should get 
into the gold, very serious results follow—a 
very small portion being sufficient to split a 
large bar and render it totally unworkable 
and exceedingly brittle; when broken, the 
grains appear close and pale. Bi-chloride 
of mercury (corrosive sublimate) is n the best 
flux to use when these defects make their 
appearance, in the proportion of two parts 
charcoal to one of corrosive sublimate, when 
all will go right again. Sandiver is also a 
very useful flux when iron or steel gets into 
the gold. Such gold, when remelted, always 
loses in weight, some of the alloy being lost 
on account of the many small pieces of gold 
of which the scrap consists. This, of course, 
improves the quality; therefore it is neces¬ 
sary, in order to keep the gold of one stand¬ 
ard, to add some small portion of alloy, 
either silver or copper ; but, as the scrap may 
contain a little solder, copper will be the best 
to use. The following calculations may be 
relied upon for the different qualities: 

TABLE OF CALCULATIONS. 
Wet-colored scrap.. 3 gr. copper per ounce. 


12-karat scrap. 6 gr. copper per ounce. 

1 o-karat scrap. 9 gr. copper per ounce. 

9-karat scrap.12 gr. copper per ounce. 


Any gold bearing the English Hall-mark 
make no additions. 

All qualities of scrap should be well-sorted 
and undergo the action of a magnet before 
remelting, and the greatest care exercised in 
keeping every quality separate. 

Sometimes in remelting scrap gold it is 
necessary to make some addition, either in 
fine gold or alloy, for the purpose of improv¬ 
ing or reducing the quality. This happens 
when different qualities of goods are required 





io8 


THE MELTING OF GOLD. 


on the spur of the moment, and it may not 
be convenient to procure fine gold at the 
time sufficient for the purpose; this is very 
often the case with beginners who have em¬ 
barked in business with a limited capital, 
which may already be partially invested; to 
such persons the advice we may give may 
prove serviceable. There may be possibly 
existing at the time in the work-shops a large 
quantity of scraps of the regular quality, and 
if the proper rules for alloying, in reference 
to reducing and improving the qualities, were 
understood thoroughly, use might be made 
of it in the above direction, not only to the 
pecuniary interest of the man of business, 
but also to the advantage of all parties con¬ 
cerned. We shall be as simple and as con¬ 
cise as possible in our modes of calculation, 
and will employ the usual arithmetical signs. 
In preparing the scrap for reducing, great 
care must be taken in selecting it free from 
solder or other impurities, otherwise the cal¬ 
culation, as regards extreme accuracy, will 
be thrown out; and sometimes this is of im¬ 
portance, but, more commonly speaking, 
when the quality is not for some special pur¬ 
pose, the difference likely to result is of little 
importance. The numeral 20 in the follow¬ 
ing tables will always be consonant, because 
it represents the number of pennyweights in 
one ounce of gold. The multipliers and di¬ 
visors will be different, and will vary with 
the quality of gold required. 

As an example, suppose we want to find 
how much pure gold will be required to be 
added to 1 ounce of 9-karat scrap in order 
to raise it to 15-karat gold, we should pro¬ 
ceed thus: 

20 x 15 = 300 
20 x 9 = 180 
300—180 = 120 
120-h 9 = 13 dwts. 8 grs. 

Therefore to every ounce of 9-karat gold 
we shall have to add 13 dwts. 8 grs. of fine 
gold to make 15-karat gold. The divisor 9 
does not represent the quality of scrap about 
to be improved, but is the difference between 
the quality manufactured and the numeral 
24, which represents the number of karats in 
one ounce; consequently, when it is desired 
to improve the scrap, the divisor will always 
represent the difference between the quality 
as improved by the addition of fine gold and 
24. When it is desired to reduce the scrap 
the reverse will be the case; the divisor will 
always indicate the quality to be made. 


Let us take another case as illustration of 
what we mean. Suppose it is desired to 
reduce some scrap in quality, no alloy being 
suitable to be found in the alloy book, we 
shall have to make a sort of guess-work or 
haphazard calculation. If we adopt the sys¬ 
tem we are recommending it will become 
very simple. To reduce 18-karat scrap in or¬ 
der to make 15-karat gold we shall proceed 
as follows: 

20 x 18 = 360 
20 x 15 = 300 
360 — 300 = 60 
60-f- 15=4 dwts. 

To every ounce of 18-karat scrap must be 
added 4 dwts. of alloy. This case clearly 
illustrates the difference in the divisor be¬ 
tween reducing and improving the quality. 
If it is of importance to know how much 
mixture of alloy should be added to one 
ounce of fine gold, in order to produce 
qualities of inferior standard, the numeral 24 
becomes consonant, thus to produce 18 kar¬ 
ats : 

20 x 24 = 480 
20 X 18 =r 360 
480 — 360 = 120 
120-j- 18 = 6 dwts. 16 grs. 

Therefore, in making 18-karat gold, to 
every ounce of fine gold a mixture of alloy 
consisting of 6 dwts. 16 grs. must be added. 
The above examples represent almost every 
case, and any others which may arise out of 
them may be safely calculated, taking these as 
basis or starting point. 


THE MELTING OF GOLD. 

HE melting of gold is a work performed 
nearly every day in the goldsmith shop, 
and would hardly be considered as one occa¬ 
sioning great difficulty. Larger quantities are 
melted in a crucible, either in a coal fire or 
in a gas furnace. This method, where gas is 
cheap, is to be highly recommended, on ac¬ 
count of great convenience and cleanliness. 

MELTING ON COAL. 

It is really a cause of astonishment that 
there are so many shops into which the 
melting of gold on coal has not yet been 
introduced, although it will be seen at a 
glance that it must be very convenient—of 
course when a small quantity only is to be 
melted; from 25 to 30 grams (16 to 19 




THE MELTING OF GOLD. 


dwts.) may be melted on a piece of coal. 
The round branch coals are to be preferred. 
See that they are thoroughly charred, and 
contain no cracks. Cut one end obliquely 
and in it make a medium deep hole, into 
which lay the gold. In order to keep out 
the air and confine the heat within, put on a 
small covering coal. As in the procedure 
when using a crucible, add the alloy only 
when the gold is in a fusing state; the labor 
of the operation may be facilitated by adding 
a small piece of borax. 

BORAX AND SALTPETER AS FLUXES. 

Borax has the property of slightly dull¬ 
ing the color of the gold, and, if a lively 
color is desired, add also a little saltpeter 
—but only a little, as this agent attacks the 
copper as alloy, especially when preparing 
red gold. This effect might be prevented 
by adding a little charcoal dust. The 
warmed ingot-mold is placed in a conven¬ 
ient position, with a piece of sheet tin under¬ 
neath ; it may happen when least expected 
that the coal splits, or, that, in shaking in 
place of stirring, a little gold flies or runs 
-over. When the gold has been melted well 
expose it to a soft flame for one moment 
longer, and when it shows a nice button, pour 
it, but not with too great haste. 

THE BEST MOLD FOR CASTING. 

An open ingot-mold should never be used 
in casting; the gold cast in it invariably 
labors under the disadvantage of being im¬ 
pure, or cracked upon the entire surface; 
such a bar will never have as regular a form 
as when cast in a closed mold. The gold¬ 
smith may himself manufacture such a mold 
very readily and in a simple manner. 

MALLEABILITY OF THE INGOT. 

Freshly alloyed gold is best suited to 
stand further working; its not being easily 
workable is frequently due to the lack of 
care exercised in the melting and casting. 
In spite of all patience in the repetition of 
the melting and the most painstaking care, 
however, it will have happened to some of 
my readers that the gold proved to be 
brittle. It is to be supposed that an an¬ 
nealing fluid would contribute to its tough¬ 
ness. Most suitable for this is perhaps the 
ordinary nitric acid, as it cleans at the same 
time the surface, and perhaps creates a thin 
film of pure gold. It is perhaps best not to 


109 

anneal it while too hot. Much is also con¬ 
tributed to the ductility of the gold by ham¬ 
mering it; strike it a few times on all sides, 
and only then bring it between the rollers. 
Both 8- and 14-karat gold must be glow- 
heated very often; but 18-karat is best 
worked up to finishing without glow-heating 
it, as it is almost sure to crack in this pro¬ 
cess. If, however, it will not stand at all 
melt it again, and when liquid add a small 
quantity of corrosive sublimate. This has 
the property of expelling the air, for which 
18-karat gold has a great affinity; in other 
words, it assists it in becoming compact. 
1 he expert workman will know by the very 
sound whether gold is ductile or not. If it 
gives a clear ring when thrown down it is 
good; if, however, the sound is dull, count 
on its being brittle. 

TO CORRECT CRACKED GOLD. 

Should the gold crack only at a few places, 
the defect may be corrected by welding. 
Coat it with borax and lay it upon the coal 
in such a manner that it lies upon it every¬ 
where. Then heat it until it almost melts; 
it will then be found that the jagged places 
have run together again, and will not re¬ 
open in the succeeding working processes. 
This, of course, applies only to 18-karat gold. 
If, however, it will not become tough in spite 
of all endeavors, it is best to use the particu¬ 
lar piece for 14-karat, and try another alloy. 
It is a first indispensable condition to use 
only the finest kind of copper for alloying. 

THE USE OF SCRAP GOLD. 

The use of scrap gold, when used for 14- 
karat, sometimes occasions great difficulties. 
It is best to dispense with the many remelt¬ 
ings and refine it well at once, for which 
the following method can be highly recom¬ 
mended. The gold to be refined is weighed 
exactly, and with a corresponding quantity 
of saltpeter placed into a crucible. Upon 
this invert a smaller crucible with a hole 
through its bottom, and then lute the joint 
well with clay. Place the crucible in the 
furnace, and at first heat slowly; when the 
vapor issues quietly from the air-hole the 
gold is melted; keep it in this condition for 
one-half hour longer; you may then be sure 
that the saltpeter has operated weH, and has 
refined the gold. When cold, break the 
lower crucible carefully, so as not to injure 
the perforated one, which may be used again 


I IO 


TO ALLOY GOLD. 


at some future time. Then weigh the but¬ 
ton, add the wanting quantity, melt together, 
and cast. It will then be malleable. 

MELTING WASTE. 

In most shops only the entirely clean gold 
filing dust is melted. Everything else is 
added to the waste, which is melted to¬ 
gether once about every two months, and 
sent to the assayer for refining. This 
method is under all circumstances the most 
convenient, as the jeweler works thus only 
with good gold and is seldom called upon 
to refine. In many establishments, even, 
when it is ascertained that a purchased lot 
of gold is not as pure as it should be, it is 
thrown into the waste. Before melting, heat 
this waste well in a pan, draw a magnet 
through the pile and take out all the iron. 
Then mix it well with potash or fluxing 
powder, place everything into a good-sized 
crucible, strew upon the surface a layer of 
salt, which prevents the boiling over, and 
place the crucible into the furnace. Since, 
especially in the melting of waste, the cruci¬ 
ble bursts easily, great care is to be exercised 
in regulating the heat well, and that the char¬ 
coals lie always compact during the melting. 
To prevent the crucible from sinking down 
to the grate when the coals underneath have 
been burned away, it is well to place it on 
the lower half of an old one. When the 
waste begins to behave more quietly, and 
emits a whiter, beady vapor, the metal has 
been melted; either cast at once, or else let 
the crucible get cold, and melt clean. When 
doing the latter, and a clean button with 
rounded edges and smooth, arched surfaces 
is found, the melting is successfully per¬ 
formed ; but, if it is flat and sharp-cornered, 
it still contains foreign metal. Preserve and 
add it to the next melting of scrap. It will 
decidedly not pay to attempt to refine the 
scrap, as the assayer can do it much cheaper 
and better. _ 

TO ALLOY GOLD. 

I T is not always convenient to obtain pure 
gold to modify our alloys; consequently 
gold coin is used which is 900 fine, and as our 
books and instructions I believe without ex¬ 
ception only give the rules for pure or fine 
gold as it is termed, I will give the rules for 
compounding alloys of any fineness less than 
-j^. from standard American gold coin. The 
rule for calculating the proportions is the 
one known in the arithmetics as alligation. 


There is a feature of the calculations which 
should be taken into consideration, and that 
is the absurd usage of a 24-karat standard. 
All our alloys should be on a decimal basis. 
If we look for a composition of brass or bell- 
metal in any work on metallurgy we find the 
proportions invariably given in hundredths, 
and so in the present case, as our coin stand¬ 
ard is in one thousandths, let us use the same 
standard in all gold alloys and call 18-karat 
gold t ? o 5 o 0 o fine. I presume most of my read¬ 
ers are familiar with the rules of alligation; 
still one would be very excusable for not 
recollecting them, as in business life, except 
to jewelers, they are seldom called into use. 
The method of working the rule is as fol¬ 
lows: We will first, however, give the deci- 
Tnal equivalent for the different alloys in 
one thousandths: 

Fineness in Fineness in 


Karats. 

ioooths. 

Karats. ioooths. 

24 

7 TT 

IOOO 

I 2 

— .500 

23 

= 

• 95 8 

I I 

= 458 

22 


.917 

10 

= .416 

21 


•875 

9 

= -375 

20 

= 

• 8 33 

8 

= -333 

19 

= 

.792 

7 

= .292 

l8 


•750 

6 

= - 2 5 ° 

17 

— 

.708 

5 

= .208 

l6 

= 

.667 

4 

= - i6 7 

15 

— 

.625 

3 

= - 1 25 

14 

= 

•583 

2 

= -083 

13 

— 

•542 

1 

= .042 


The reader need not be told that to con¬ 
vert the karat expression into decimals, he 
should add cyphers to the karats fine given 
and divide by 24 ; as, for instance, what is 
the decimal of 18-k. ? Add 000 which re¬ 
duces it to thousandths and divide by 24; 
18.000 24 = .750. The alligation method 

is worked as follows: Suppose we have 
some 10-k. scrap we wish to raise to 14-k.; 
by adding gold coin 900 fine we would work 
it thus: Write the desired fineness in deci¬ 
mals to the left (14-k. in decimals being 583) 
thus: 



then to the right put the decimal of 10-k., 
416 (see table), and below this put the gold 
coin decimal of 900. Still farther to the 
right we write the difference between 583 
and 900, not opposite to the 900, but opposite 
the 416 or 10-k. decimal, while opposite the 
900 we write the difference between 583 and 
416. Now, the meaning of this is, if we 




GOLD AND ITS ALLOYS. 


111 


take 317 parts of 10-k. gold and add 167 
parts of coin gold, we will have a mixture 
(alloy) of 14-k. gold. To prove this let us 
suppose the 317 and 167 represents dwts. of 
gold, the first of 10-k. fine is worth say 40 
cts. a dwt., and the second, coin gold worth 
86 cts., 4 mills a dwt. Now, 317 and 167 
added together as 14-k. alloy will make 484 
dwts., and this at 56 cts. a dwt. (4 cts. a 
karat fine), amounts to $271.04. To form 
this 484 dwts. of 14-k. alloy, we used 167 
dwts. of coin gold worth 86.4 cts. a dwt. 
and 317 dwts. of 10-k. worth 40 cts. a dwt. 
The first amounts to $144.28 and the latter 
$126.80; added together they amount to 
$271.08, the 4 cts. discrepancy arising from 
the decimals on the 10 and 14-k. as will be 
seen by taking a series which have perfect 
decimal expression. Even the slight loss 
noticed could be reduced to a fraction of a 
cent by carrying the decimal expression out 
two figures farther. The truth or accuracy 
of the rule will be demonstrated by taking 
such an expression as the following which 
give perfect decimals, when we will raise 
some 12-k. to 18-k. stated thus: 


In this case every 150 parts of 12-k. will 
require 250 parts of coin 900 fine. We will 
suppose we have 30 dwts. of 12-k. we raise 
to 18-k.; we make the statement of 150 
parts of 12-k. require 250 parts of 900, what 
will 30 parts require—thus : 

150 :25c: : 30: the required amount. 
We work it out as follows: 

250 X 3° = 7 > 5 °° -E I S° = 5 °> 

the required dwts. of coin gold 900 fine. 
Now, to see how this will pan out by values 
as above where no loss from decimals will 
occur. We have 80 dwts. of 18-k. from the 
30 dwts. of 12-k. and 50 dwts. of coin gold; 
now, 50 dwts. at 72 cts. is $57.60. And 30 
dwts. of 12-k. at 48 cts. is $14.40, and 50 
dwts. of coin gold at 86.4 cts. is $43.20, 
which added to $14.40 gives us $57.60, the 
same result as before. In calculations it is 
as well to use grains; as, for instance, we 
had 26 dwts., 14 grains of gold, we would 
express it thus, 534 ; it would make no differ¬ 
ence with the method of stating the question 
as in illustration of the last proposition of 30 
dwts. only we would say 720 grs.; thus: 

150 : 250 : : 720 : 1,200 (grs.). 


It is almost needless to say 1,200 divided 
by 24 gives the dwts. 


GOLD AND ITS ALLOYS. 

IGHTEEN-karat gold, from the pecul¬ 
iar nature of its alloy, can be wrought 
into almost any article of exquisite beauty 
and delicate workmanship; if properly cast, 
it is both malleable and tenacious. It is also 
exceedingly ductile. A hardness is imparted 
to this quality of gold, which admirably 
adapts it to the manufacture of jewelry of 
the highest order. There is, perhaps, a diffi¬ 
culty in preparing eighteen-karat gold, not 
experienced in some other alloys; this defect 
soon shows itself when subjected to the 
breaking-down mill, by little cracks all over 
the surface of the bar of gold; and when 
this appearance presents itself, it is by far the 
most economical plan to remelt it at once 
than to go on with the breaking-down; for 
when the process of slitting is attempted, the 
gold will all fly into little fragments, and the 
probability is that some will be lost. The 
prevailing opinion in the trade is, that this 
want of unity or amalgamation of the par¬ 
ticles of the gold and alloy is due to the 
copper which is employed. Our experience 
teaches us—having tried every kind of cop¬ 
per, from the bean-shot down to the best 
refined Swedish wire, for the purpose of pro¬ 
ducing eighteen-karat gold rather cheaper— 
that we have invariably found that there is 
not so much in the quality of the copper as 
in the quantity used. This we wish to state 
for the benefit of the goldsmiths’ trade. 
Formerly we used a rather large proportion 
of copper, in order to effect a small saving 
per ounce, but the misfortune to which we 
have just alluded sometimes presented itself, 
and after trying all sorts of copper, with no 
certainty of permanent success, we thought 
of the plan of alloying with more silver and 
less copper. In this we succeeded, and now 
never meet with a bar exhibiting the defects 
after rolling just described. 

It is the most economical plan, when these 
defects appear, to reduce the bar to the regu¬ 
lar nine-karat quality. It is only right to 
say that we always found eighteen-karat gold 
alloyed with bean-shot copper, a more diffi¬ 
cult and harder alloy to work with than when 
the refined wire was used. One great draw¬ 
back in shot copper (which is very injurious 
in alloying, particularly in this quality), is 
that it may contain lead or tin; and half a 




I I 2 


GOLD AND ITS ALLOYS. 


grain of either in an ounce of this gold will 
prevent it from working. This quality of 
gold is now always manufactured fully up to 
the standard fineness. 

COLORS OF GOLD. 

Yellow gold —pure or fine gold, 24 parts. 

Red gold —fine gold, 18 parts ; copper, 6 
parts. 

Green gold —fine gold, 18 parts ; silver, 6 
parts. 

Blue gold —fine gold, 18 parts; iron, 6 
parts. 

White gold —fine gold, 12 parts ; silver, 12 
parts. 

Platinum, or fine silver, may be employed 
for white gold. Red and white are generally 
employed for flowers, green for leaves, while 
the stems or sprays may be made of yellow 
or fine gold. Blue gold may be used for 
special purposes of ornamentation. This 
latter alloy requires great practical knowl¬ 
edge, as it presents many difficulties in its 
preparation; these are best overcome, first, 
by melting the gold, and then introducing 
some iron wire into the molten mass, until 
the proper quantity of alloy is formed. Then 
the crucibles must be withdrawn, and the 
composition poured out into an ingot-mold 
prepared for its reception. This alloy must 
not be quenched in water, but allowed to 
cool; the ingot of gold to be perfect should 
exhibit no signs of porosity; if it turns out 
of the ingot-mold in proper condition, it 
must be well hammered upon the edge, and 
annealed in order to render the grain more 
close and prevent it cracking in the rolling- 
mill. This process may be wisely repeated 
upon the surface, and the ingot again put 
through the fire. The gold is then ready for 
the breaking-down mill, and may be safely 
wrought into wires or sheets of different 
sizes. 

Fifteen-karat gold is another alloy largely 
used in the manufacture of colored jewelry. 
This quality, to our mind, is second to none 
with respect to works of art in jewelry, both 
in regard to taste and appearance as well as 
durability. It can be made to look quite 
equal to the finest gold, and in addition it is 
easy of manipulation ; almost any article can 
be easily made from it, whilst the hardness 
which nine parts of alloy impart, is not such 
as to prove a hindrance or a difficulty in the 
manufacture, but unites with it that amount 
of strength and durability which is so essen¬ 
tial in costly articles of jewelry. These ad¬ 


vantages make articles of this gold wear 
much better than when made of a softer 
material; they also keep their form and 
shape a considerable time longer. 

Thirteen-karat gold is called common 
when speaking of colored goods, for the 
reason that it is about the lowest quality that 
can be conveniently colored to look rich and 
beautiful. A slightly inferior quality (12^- 
karat) can be colored, but thirteen-karat is 
about the usual kind employed in all respect¬ 
able colored-gold houses. In Birmingham 
a very large quantity of gold is weekly em¬ 
ployed in manufactures of this kind. 

Twelve-karat gold is the best of the bright 
golds, and is so called to distinguish it from 
the colored; although any of the qualities 
that are described in speaking of colored 
gold may be made bright by a little variation 
in the mixture of alloy. No gold inferior 
to twelve-karat will color to present that 
appearance which characterizes the higher 
qualities. Twelve-karat gold finished bright 
has a fine, rich, sparkling appearance, and 
when the workmanship is good is very im¬ 
posing; it is a good quality to work upon, 
being tolerably soft and ductile, as well as 
possessing good malleable properties. 

Ten-karat gold sustains all the character¬ 
istics of the former quality, both as regards 
facility of manufacture and finish. A large 
quantity of goods is made of this quality in 
Birmingham. 

Nine-karat gold is regularly manufactured 
into all kinds of bright goods, and this qual¬ 
ity, when made fully up to the standard of 
fineness, is of a good appearance. After all, 
the quality which is most extensively em¬ 
ployed in every possible description of manu¬ 
facture, is usually below this standard, prob¬ 
ably it is about 8*4 karats; and if alloyed 
according to the appended table will stand 
the aqua test perfectly well. Nine-karat of 
the mixture of alloy given in the table will 
stand more than ordinary treatment from the 
hands of the workman, and may be touched 
and removed from the annealing pan while 
still red hot, without injury to any subsequent 
manipulation of it; it may also be quenched 
at any degree of heat in pickle or water, if 
any advantage is likely to accrue from it; 
but we strongly object to the continuous 
quenching of gold alloys at every subsequent 
process of annealing, partly because every 
time the metal is quenched in sulphuric acid 
pickle, a portion of alloy in these low qualities 
is dissolved. This improves the quality of 


GOLD AND ITS ALLOYS. 


the gold, by which the manufacturer does 
not receive any benefit, but is actually a 
loser. Moreover, we shall see that, when 
we come to the processes of soldering, this 
pickling or boiling-out is perfectly indispen¬ 
sable. 

Nine-karat alloys, if alloys with too much 
spelter, will not present the characteristics 
we have just named in respect to treatment; 
if shaken or touched while hot, they are very 
brittle and difficult to work; consequently 
they take longer in working, and therefore 
the same quantity of goods cannot be pro¬ 
duced in a given time with these alloys as 
with those we have just described. The 
great point in the manufacture of gold articles 
should be to get the greatest amount of real 
work out of the smallest amount of material, 
so as to make the least possible waste or 
scrap for remelting; for this reason we say 
that the alloys which mostly tend to this ob¬ 
ject are the best for jewelers to use in their 
manufactures. 

Eight-karat gold is sometimes used in the 
manufacture of jewelry, and is often styled 
nine-karat No. 2, in some of the workshops 
where this quality is somewhat extensively 
employed. In order to stand the aqua test 
it must be alloyed with more silver than or¬ 
dinary nine-karat gold, and when finished 
appears rather paler to the eye ; this may be 
a partial guide as to quality, but not always 
a sure one; if properly alloyed it works ex¬ 
ceedingly well in any process of preparation, 
from the ingot-bar down to the finished ar¬ 
ticles ; but, of course, judgment must be 
used by the workman as to the proper periods 
for annealing; if this be neglected the gold 
will become hard and brittle, and, as to the 
process of preparing proceeds, it will break 
and fall to pieces. 

Seven-karat gold is generally termed com¬ 
mon gold, and is about the lowest quality 
manufactured ; it requires extra care in work- 
ing on account of the very large proportion 
of silver it contains, which increases the fusi¬ 
bility of this alloy. Care must necessarily be 
taken in annealing and soldering. The in¬ 
creased proportion of silver is requisite to 
enable the articles manufactured from it to 
stand the gold test of aqua fortis. Gold 
chains of this quality are now very seldom 
made. The common alloys of gold have 
much lower fusible point than those of a 
superior quality. 

Pure silver has a brilliant white color, and 
is the whitest of all the metals; none surpass 


"3 

it in luster; and in hardness it ranges be¬ 
tween pure gold and pure copper. It is 
more fusible than copper or gold, melting at 
a bright red heat or at 1,873° F. It is com¬ 
monly used for the purpose of alloying gold 
in its pure state, but if too much be added it 
makes the gold pale. 

Pure copper has a reddish appearance, and 
is the only metal of that color; it is both 
malleable and ductile, hence it is used as an 
alloy for gold. In fusibility it stands be¬ 
tween silver and gold. It is a very useful 
metal, a large number of cheap alloys being 
manufactured from it. 

Composition is a mixture of copper and 
zinc, and is used by jewelers in alloying. 
Some of them profess to have secrets with 
regard to color, which is produced by differ¬ 
ent proportions of the composition. 

When it is necessary to form hard gold, 
this metal may be safely employed, although 
it will not be wise to use too much, about 
four dwts. to the ounce of fine gold being 
ample; if, as we have already observed, too 
much be added, it will make the gold brittle 
and unworkable. With less silver and more 
composition an alloy is formed equal in ap¬ 
pearance to one, two or three karats higher, 
but it is very difficult to work, and after be¬ 
ing some time in wear it changes color. 
This alloy cannot be attempted in very 
inferior qualities, as it will not stand the 
acid. 

TABLE OF ALLOYS. 

For 23 karats—23 parts gold, x / 2 part cop¬ 
per, y 2 part silver. 

For 22 karats—22 parts gold, 1 part cop¬ 
per, 1 part silver. 

For 20 karats—20 parts gold, 2 parts 
copper, 2 parts silver. 

For 18 karats—18 parts gold, 3 parts 
copper, 3 parts silver. 

For 15 karats—15 parts gold, 6 parts cop¬ 
per, 3 parts silver. 

For 13 karats—13 parts gold, 8 parts cop¬ 
per, 3 parts silver. 

For 12 karats—12 parts gold, &y parts 
copper, 3*4 parts silver. 

For 10 karats—10 parts gold, 10 parts 
copper, 4 parts silver. 

For 9 karats—9 parts gold, ioj 4 parts 
copper, 4 y 2 parts silver. 

For 8 karats—8 parts gold, 10 y 2 parts 
copper, 5 y 2 parts silver. 

For 7 karats—7 parts gold, 9 parts cop¬ 
per, 8 parts silver. 


GOLD SOLDERS. 


114 


For composition—16 parts copper, 8 parts 
spelter (purified zinc). 

The above table represents the full stand¬ 
ard quality of alloy (used in England); if it 
be needful to make an inferior alloy, which 
is often the case in the manufacture of 
jewelry, the same calculation in respect to 
the inferior metals will do, but a small por¬ 
tion of fine gold must be deducted till it 
brings the alloy down to the value required. 

VARIOUS GOLD ALLOYS. 

The following mixtures will answer all the 
ordinary purposes of the manufacturing jew¬ 
eler for his gold alloys: 

Gold , 2 2 karats, for wedding rings or med¬ 
als : 22 parts fine gold, 1 fine silver, 1 copper. 

Gold, 18 karats, bright: 18 parts fine gold, 
4 fine silver, 2 copper. 

Gold, 18 karats, colored: 18 parts fine 
gold, 4 copper, 2 silver. 

Gold, 15 karats, bright: 15 parts fine gold, 
6 fine silver, 3 copper, or 15 parts 18 kt. 
bright gold, 2 fine silver, 1 copper, or 15 
parts 18 kt. colored gold, 2^ fine silver, 
copper. 

Gold, 15 karats, colored: 15 parts .fine 
gold, 6 copper, 3 fine silver, or 15 parts 18 
kt. colored gold, 2 copper, 1 fine silver, or 
15 parts 18 kt. bright gold, 2^ copper, y £ 
fine silver. 

Gold, 12 karats: 12 parts fine gold, 8 fine 
gold, 4 copper, or 12 parts 18 kt. colored 
gold, 4 fine silver, 2 copper, or 12 parts 18 
kt. bright gold, 3 fine silver, 3 copper, or 12 
parts 15 kt. colored gold, 2 fine silver, 1 cop¬ 
per, or 12 parts 15 kt. bright gold, 1 y 2 fine 
silver, 1 y 2 copper, 3 parts fine gold, 12 parts 
of 9 kt. gold, or 3 parts 18 kt. colored gold, 
6 parts 9 kt. gold, or 3 parts 15 kt. colored 
gold, 3 parts 9 kt. gold. 

Gold, 9 karats: 9 parts fine gold, 8 fine 
silver, 7 copper, or 9 parts fine gold, 7 fine 
silver, 5 copper, 3 brass, or 9 parts 18 kt. 
colored gold, 6 fine silver, 3 copper. 9 parts 
18 kt. colored gold, 5 fine silver, 2 copper, 2 
brass, or 9 parts 18 kt. bright gold, 5 fine 
silver, 4 copper, or 9 parts 15 kt. colored 
gold, 4 fine silver, 2 copper, or 9 parts 15 kt. 
colored gold, 3 fine silver, 1 copper, 2 brass. 

HARD GOLD ALLOY. 

A very hard gold alloy which may be 
used for many purposes, is obtained by 
melting together three parts gold, two parts 
silver, four parts copper, and one part pal¬ 


ladium. The mixture is of a brownish-red 
color and assumes a high polish. We should 
think that it would be excellent for jewel 
holes ; a good hard alloy would be preferable 
to colored glass jewels seen in many low- 
grade watches. 

NOTES ON ALLOYS. 

Mr. Guthier, in his work on “ Metal Al¬ 
loys,” gives a few suggestions on the subject 
of fusing the metals: 1. The melting pot 
should be red hot (a white heat is better), 
and those metals first placed in which require 
the most heat to fuse them. 2. Place the 
metals into the melting pot in strict order, 
following exactly the different fusing points 
from the highest degree of temperature re¬ 
quired, down to the lowest, in regular order, 
and being especially careful to refrain from 
adding the next metals until those already in 
the pot are completely melted. 3. When 
the metals fused together in the crucible 
require very different temperatures to melt 
them, a layer of charcoal should be placed 
upon them, or if there is much tin in the al¬ 
loy, a layer of sand should be used. 4. The 
molten mass should be vigorously stirred 
with a stick, and even while pouring it into 
another vessel, the stirring should not be re¬ 
laxed. 5. Another hint is to use a little old 
alloy in making new, if there is any on hand, 
and the concluding word of caution is to 
make sure that the melting pots are abso¬ 
lutely clean and free from any traces of for¬ 
mer operation. 


GOLD SOLDERS. 

A S it is difficult to procure, at the time 
- when most wanted, alloys for solders 
that are the most suitable and advantageous 
for the various kinds of work without no little 
inconvenience in effecting a proper composi¬ 
tion, we here append a list suitable for all 
the qualities of colored gold work as manu¬ 
factured by jewelers and goldsmiths : 

GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR I 8-KARAT WORK. 

oz. dwts. grs. 

Gold, fine. 1 o o 

Silver, fine. o 6 o 

Copper wire. o 4 o 


1 10 o 

Or 3 dwts. of copper and dwt. of composi 
tion instead of all copper. 







GOLD SOLDERS. 


GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR I 8-KARAT WORK. 

oz. dwts. grs. 

Gold, fine. i o o 

Silver, fine. o 7 o 

Copper wire. o 512 


1 1212 

Or 4 dwts. of copper and iy dwts. of com¬ 
position instead of all copper. 

GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR I 6-KARAT WORK. 


Gold, fine. 

OZ. 

dwts. 

O 

grs. 

O 

Silver, fine. 


8 

O 

Copper wire. 


7 

O 


1 

15 

O 


Or 5 dwts. of copper and 2 dwts. of com¬ 
position instead of all copper. 

GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR I 5-KARAT WORK. 

oz. dwts. grs. 

Gold, fine. i o o 

Silver, fine. o io o 

Copper wire. o io o 


200 

Or 7 y 2 dwts. of copper and 2^ dwts. of 
composition instead of all copper. 


GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR 1 4-KARAT WORK. 

oz. dwts. grs. 


Gold, fine. 

I O 

0 

Silver, fine. 

O 12 

12 

Copper wire. 

0 12 

12 


2 5 

0 

Or g }4 dwts. of copper and 3 

dwts. of com- 

position instead of all copper. 



GOLD SOLDER SUITABLE FOR 

ANY COLORED 

WORK. 

oz. dwts. 

grs. 

Gold, fine. 

I O 

O 

Silver, fine. 

O 15 

O 

Copper wire. 

O 12 

12 


2 7 

12 

Or 9 y dwts. of copper and 3 

dwts. of com- 

position instead of all copper. 



EASILY FLOWING YELLOW HARD SOLDER. 


A yellow solder is frequently required in 
country shops; it must flow at a low heat, 
and be a hard solder at the same time. 
Of course, each shop contains its own rec¬ 
ipe, each one possessing its own merits, 
but the following will be found as good as 
the best: For an easy flowing 5-karat solder, 


1 >5 

take 5 dwts. gold, 13 dwts. silver and 6 dwts. 
copper. Melt and cast into bars; as soon 
as it can be handled, break into pieces and 
throw into the melting pot; while the pot is 
hot add 15 grains of brass and melt again; 
when thoroughly mixed, cast into a bar and 
roll it out thin for use. Another solder, 
much used for low grade gold, is made as 
follows: 3 dwts. gold, 2 silver, y 2 copper; 
melt as above, and at the second melting 
add, when fused, y> dwt. zinc in small pieces, 
and as soon as mixed pour into the mold. 
This solder runs at a dull red heat; three- 
fourths dwt. zinc in place of one-half would 
flow sooner, but would be apt to eat into the 
work if too high or too low heat was used. 
But that would be of little consequence if 
the article to be soldered was of brass. 

SOFT GOLD SOLDER FOR 1 4 KARATS. 

Melt equal parts of 14-karat gold and sil¬ 
ver solder, and hammer it into thin sheets 
upon the anvil. This solder will satisfy 
all the demands of a watch repairer. It 
is advisable to use silver solder for a low- 
grade, say 6- or 8-karat gold goods, which 
consists of 2 parts fine silver and 1 brass, 
with the addition of a gram of tin. 

SOFT GOLD SOLDER FOR 8 AND 14 KARATS. 

A nice soft solder for 8- and 14-karat 
gold consists of 1.5 parts fine silver, 0.5 
part fine copper, 1.6 parts 14-karat gold, 
and 0.4 part zinc; the first three metals are 
well melted and mixed together, and when 
well in a fluid state, the zinc is added, the 
whole left for a few moments in fusion, until 
it melts, not volatilizes, and then cast. 

C-OLD SOLDER. 

To make a gold solder, instead of reduc¬ 
ing the quality of your gold with copper, 
silver, or brass, use a silver solder com¬ 
posed of three dwts. coin silver and one dwt. 
English pins. I never keep gold solder by 
me ; when I make a piece of jewelry, as soon 
as I get the gold worked out, I take a piece 
of it, and reduce it with about its own weight 
of the silver solder, with the blow-pipe on 
charcoal. It matters not if the work is to be 
bright or colored, it always comes out sat¬ 
isfactory. I, however, make colored work 
always of at least 15 karats. By what I have 
said, my solder will be, say, 8 karats. Some 
will say, perhaps, that such solder will not 
color; neither will it, but it must be borne in 
mind that when pieces of gold are soldered 






















RESTORING THE COLOR OF GOLD AFTER HARD SOLDERING. 


116 

together, the surface melts and combines 
with the solder, thereby improving 8 karats 
to 12 karats. This, of course, will be a very 
easy running solder, intended for light work, 
and where a large number of pieces are to be 
joined; for a heavy job, do not reduce it 
quite as much. _ 

SOFT-SOLDERING ARTICLES. 

M OISTEN the parts to be united with 
the soldering fluid, then, having joined 
them together, lay a small piece of solder 
upon the joint, and hold over the lamp, or 
direct the blaze upon it with the blow-pipe, 
until fusion is apparent. Withdraw them 
from the blaze immediately, as too much 
heat will render the solder brittle and unsat¬ 
isfactory. When the parts to be joined can 
be made to spring or press against - each 
other, it is best to place a thin piece of solder 
between them before exposing to the lamp. 
When two smooth surfaces are to be soldered 
one upon the other, you make an excellent 
job by moistening them with the fluid, and 
then having placed a sheet of tinfoil between 
them, holding them pressed together over your 
lamp till the foil melts. If the surfaces fit 
nicely, a joint may be made in this manner 
so close as almost to be imperceptible. The 
bright looking lead which comes as a lining 
of tea boxes, is better than tinfoil. 


SOLDERING FLUID. 

A N exchange gives the following recipe 
. for making a soldering fluid for soft- 
soldering jewelry. Dissolve sheet zinc in 
hydrochloric acid until the acid will take up 
no more zinc. Turn off the clear liquid and 
dilute it with alcohol in place of water. 
When diluted with water, it must retain acid 
enough to rust, but with alcohol the dilution 
can go on until the acid is not perceptible by 
the tongue. _ 

SOLDERING A RING WITH A JEWEL. 

I N order to prevent the bursting of the 
jewels of a ring, when soldering the 
latter for repairs, take a juicy potato, cut it 
into halves, make a hollow in both portions in 
which that part of the ring with the jewels 
fits exactly, so that that part of the ring to 
be soldered protrudes. Then wrap the jew¬ 
eled portion in fine silk paper, place it in the 
hollow, and bind up the closed potato with 
binding wire. Now, solder with easily-flow¬ 
ing gold solder—not upon a coal, but by 


holding the potato in the hand. Another 
good way to do the same job is to fill a 
small crucible with wet sand, bury that part 
of the ring with jewels in the sand, and then 
solder. _ 

TO REMOVE SOLDER STAINS. 

T HE removal of solder stains, to a certain 
extent, depends on the nature of the 
article you are soldering. If you are solder¬ 
ing gilt metal, German silver or silver, you 
may scrape it off. If you use pickle, you 
will leave a stain that will require to be pol¬ 
ished off. If soldering bright gold you can 
use pickle rubbed on with a cork. With 
colored gold, it would be better to use a 
little color. Pickle is merely nitric acid and 
water, in the proportion of half a gill of acid 
to a pint of water. 


TO REMOVE SOFT SOLDER FROM 
GOLD AND SILVER WORK. 

T HE following method is given by Mr. 

A. Watt: Place the soldered article in 
a hot solution of perchloride of iron—made 
by dissolving crocus or jewelers’ rouge in 
muriatic acid—diluting the solution with four 
times its bulk of water, and there leaving it 
until the solder is removed. A formula 
recommended by Gee for this purpose is 
composed of protosulphate of iron (green 
copperas), 2 oz.; nitrate of potassa (salt¬ 
peter), 1 oz.; water, 10 oz. Reduce the 
protosulphate of iron and nitrate of potassa 
to a fine powder, then add these ingredients 
to the water and boil in a cast-iron saucepan 
for some time ; allow the liquid to cool, when 
crystals will be formed; if any of the liquid 
should remain uncrystallized, pour it from the 
crystals and again evaporate and crystallize. 
The crystallized salt should be dissolved in 
muriatic acid in the proportion of 1 oz. of 
the salt to 8 of acid. Now take 1 oz. of this 
solution and add to it 4 ozs. of boiling water 
in a pipkin, keeping up the heat as before. 
In a short time the most obstinate cases of 
soft solder will be cleanly and entirely over¬ 
come and the solder removed without the 
work changing color. 


RESTORING THE COLOR OF GOLD 
AFTER HARD SOLDERING. 


T HERE are different ways, according to 
the effect desired, as for plain or mat 
gold, Roman or Etruscan, etc. To describe 








SEPARATING GOLD FROM GILT ARTICLES. 


all would make quite a good-sized book. 
The simplest and easiest way is to expose all 
parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow 
it to cool, then boil it until bright in a pickle 
made with about yi ounce of sulphuric acid 
to one ounce of rain water. Another way 
is to first pickle, then color. Anneal and 
boil in a pickle made of nitric acid and 
water, then again anneal black and dip in a 
coloring mixture made as follows: Put into 
the coloring pot or a No. i o black-lead cru¬ 
cible 9 oz. 12 dwts. of saltpeter, and 4 oz. 
15 dwts. of table salt. Heat it up without 
water, then add hot water enough to make 
a thick paste; let it boil, add 6^ oz. of 
muriatic acid and stir it up well. In using, 
keep up a quick and lively fire, and the mixt¬ 
ure should boil up till it fills the crucible— 
which should have been previously well an¬ 
nealed to avoid breaking. The mixture re¬ 
moves more or less of the gold, and the 
operation should therefore be performed as 
quickly as possible. With good gold 1 y 2 to 
2 minutes will be long enough to expose it 
to the mixture. The article should be con¬ 
stantly stirred about, taking care not to let 
any of the surface get out of the color, as the 
vapors will affect the work. Then rinse it in 
a pickle, dip in hot water, wash well in am¬ 
monia, again dip in hot water and dry thor¬ 
oughly in hot sawdust. This color may be 
used with gold ranging between 12 and 20 
karats fine, but the finest coloring can be got 
with about 15-karat gold. If not thoroughly 
dried the work is liable to become spotted. 
Much practice is needed to be successful. 


WHEN WRONG SOLDER IS USED. 

HEN colored gold-work intended for 
coloring has, by mistake, been soldered 
with silver solder, which renders it unfit for 
the purpose, it can be prepared again for the 
operation by being placed in tolerably strong 
nitric acid, of good commercial quality and 
free from muriatic acid, as the latter would 
cause the mixture to be decomposed, with 
liberation of chlorine and dissolution of the 
gold. The nitric acid solution, if chemically 
pure acid is employed, will entirely free the 
work from all traces of the wrong solder, 
breaking it up and dissolving it without in¬ 
juring in any way the articles operated upon. 
After the solder has been removed, and the 
work taken from the solution or acid, it 
should be rinsed, annealed and boiled out in 
dilute sulphuric acid—commonly called oil 


1 17 

of vitriol—before re-soldering again with 
the proper solder. The nitric-acid solution 
should be of good strength, although not too 
strong; a good mixture consists of one part 
of acid to four of water. It should be used 
hot, and the necessary heat can be kept up 
to the point required by means of a gas jet. 


TO REMOVE SOFT SOLDER. 

OW to get rid of soft solder on such 
jobs as one has to hard solder. Boil 
the job in a mixture of crocus and muriatic 
acid. Take 4 ounces of muriatic acid and 
add y 2 an ounce of crocus in a bottle ; shake 
the mixture well. Take of this mixture 1 
ounce and add 4 ounces of hot water, and 
keep it hot over a lamp or gas flame; put 
your article in, and in a short time the soft 
solder will be dissolved off. 


SEPARATING GOLD FROM GILT 
ARTICLES. 

RON and steel articles, says A. Rose- 
leur, are ungilt without any injury to 
themselves, by dipping them into a bath of 
10 parts of cyanide of potassium and 100 
parts of water, and connecting them with 
the positive pole of a battery. A wire or 
foil of platinum is fixed to the negative pole. 
This is inverting the position of the poles, 
and in this case the gold applied upon the 
iron or steel is dissolved in the solution of 
cyanide, and partly deposited upon the plati¬ 
num anode, from which it is removed in a 
regular gold bath. When there is only a film 
of gold upon iron or steel, it may be removed 
by the cyanide alone without the aid of elec¬ 
tricity, but the method is slow. 

Silver, copper, and their alloys, may also 
be ungilt by this process, but the cyanide 
dissolves, at the same time, the gold and part 
of the other metals; it is, therefore, prefer¬ 
able to operate as follows: For ungilding 
silver, it is heated to a cherry-red heat, and 
immediately thrown into a pickle of more or 
less diluted sulphuric acid. The gold scales 
off and falls to the bottom in the shape of 
spangles. The operation is repeated until 
gold no longer appears upon the surface of 
the silver, which is then white and frosty. 
This process is not adapted to light and hol¬ 
low articles, for which the preceding process 
is better. For copper and its alloys, in small 
articles such as false jewelry, thinly gilt, 
either by battery or by dipping, use the fol- 







REFINING GOLD THAT WILL NOT WORK. 


118 

lowing bath: sulphuric acid, io parts; nitric 
acid, i part; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts. 

The large quantity of sulphuric acid allows 
of the solution of gold, whilst it does not 
sensibly attack copper or its alloys. The 
sulphuric acid is put alone into a stoneware 
jar, and the mixture of hydrochloric and 
nitric acids, kept in a stoppered bottle, is 
gradually added to it as the operation pro¬ 
ceeds. The same sulphuric acid may last a 
long time if it is kept well covered, and its 
dissolving action promoted by successive ad¬ 
ditions of nitric and hydrochloric acids. The 
articles should be often withdrawn to watch 
the operation, which is terminated when no 
gold is seen, and when the copper has ac¬ 
quired a uniform blackish-gray coat; or, by 
plunging the objects into the compound 
acids, they will be perfectly cleansed when 
the gold has all dissolved. 

Saltpeter and common salt may be substi¬ 
tuted for nitric acid and hydrochloric acid ; 
the salts must be finely powdered and stirred 
with a glass rod. 

For large objects, such as clocks or chan¬ 
deliers, concentrated sulphuric acid, 66° 
Beaume, is put into a glass or stoneware ves¬ 
sel supporting two brass rods. One of these 
rods is connected by a conducting wire with 
the last carbon of a battery of two or three 
Bunsen’s inserted elements, and supports the 
objects to be ungilt, which are entirely cov¬ 
ered by the sulphuric acid. The other rod 
supports a copper plate, facing the object, 
and is connected with the last zinc of the 
battery. The electric fluid traverses the sul¬ 
phuric acid, and carries the gold from the 
positive to the negative pole; as the copper 
plate is not prepared for retaining the gold, 
it falls to the bottom of the bath in a black 
powder, which is easily recovered. So long 
as the sulphuric acid is concentrated, and 
even under the action of the galvanic cur¬ 
rent, it does not sensibly corrode the copper. 
As it rapidly absorbs the dampness of the 
atmosphere, the vessel in which it is con¬ 
tained should be kept perfectly closed, when 
the ungilding process is not in active opera¬ 
tion, and the pieces for ungilding should be 
put in perfectly dry. 

If it is intended to sacrifice the gilt articles 
of copper or silver, let them remain in pure 
nitric acid, which dissolves all the metals ex¬ 
cept gold, which either floats on the surface 
of the liquid as a metallic foil, or falls to the 
bottom as a blackish powder. If the liquor 
is diluted with distilled water and filtered, all 


the gold will remain in the filter and the solu¬ 
tion will contain the other metals. 


STRIPPING GOLD FRbM GOLD- 
PLATED WARE. 

CCORDING to the following process 
the gold may be stripped from a gold- 
plated article, no matter whether it was fire 
—or electrically gilt. When stripping with 
the battery do as follows : Suspend the 
article in place of the anode in an almost 
exhausted bath, previously warmed. In 
place of the goods a piece of sheet copper, 
insulated in some manner, is best. After the 
current has been active for a short time the 
gold will be found to be entirely stripped 
from the article. The gold is recovered by 
diluting the stripping fluid with double the 
quantity of water and adding a solution of 
sulphate of iron. The gold will be precipi¬ 
tated in powder form, and may then be 
melted. 

The gold may also be stripped by means 
of a mixture of 200 parts sulphuric acid, 40 
parts hydrochloric acid, and 20 parts nitric 
acid, in which it will gradually dissolve. 
The articles must always be entered in this 
mixture in a perfectly dry condition. To 
recover the gold, dilute this acid mixture with 
from 1 o to 12 times its quantity of water, 
and add a solution of sulphate of iron. The 
gold will also in this instance be precipitated 
in the form of powder, and may then be 
smelted in the well-known manner. 

If the article is of a shape to be scraped, 
the gold may also be stripped in this me¬ 
chanical way. The copper of the scrapings 
may be eaten out with nitric acid, after which 
the gold can be smelted. 


REFINING GOLD THAT WILL NOT 
WORK. 

T is known to those who work in gold 
that there are times when a piece of 
that metal cannot be got to work; so, after 
having tried all the usual methods of refin¬ 
ing and re-alloying, etc., only to find that our 
time has been wasted, and the gold as obsti¬ 
nate and unworkable as ever, that we are 
compelled to resort to a chemical process; 
we accordingly refine it once more, giving it 
lots of saltpeter, a good heat, plenty of time 
—throwing in a pinch of table salt when the 
crucible shows a disposition to boil over. 
The result is an alloy composed of gold and 





HOW TO UTILIZE GOLD SCRAPS. 


silver. Nitro-muriatic acid will not dissolve 
this, because, after eating the gold off the 
surface, further action is prevented by a coat 
of silver that remains. In like manner, nitric 
acid will not act upon it. Under such cir¬ 
cumstances it is customary to melt about 
eight times its weight of silver with it, and 
when really hot, to pour it into a large vessel 
of water while an assistant agitates it briskly 
with a stick, so as to cut it up into small shot. 
(Some roll it out.) It is then dissolved with 
nitric acid, which leaves the gold in the form 
of a black sediment, which, on being dried, 
turns to a beautiful brown powder, and on 
being melted with a little borax runs out fine 
gold. So far there is nothing new. We will 
say that we have two ounces of this alloy. 
This will require about sixteen ounces of sil¬ 
ver. By the way, I have known people to 
borrow old silver from their neighbors in the 
trade, to be returned after having used it for 
this purpose. This is the predicament I was 
in. I had no old silver; no neighbors to 
borrow from, and did not care to melt so 
much coin, especially as I had no use for it 
afterward ; and still I had urgent use for this 
troublesome gold. I thought over the diffi¬ 
culty, and determined, although I had never 
known of such a thing being done, to use 
pure copper in the place of silver, with the 
most gratifying result—in fact, consider it 
much better than silver, for while copper only 
needs cold nitric acid and to be set aside 
where the fumes can escape, silver requires 
heat and constant attendance. The solution 
must now be decanted off the sediment into 
another vessel, and table salt added to it to 
throw down the silver; both these precipi¬ 
tates must be well washed in several changes 
of water, allowing them plenty of time to settle 
each time, and dry them well before putting 
them in the crucible to melt. The copper is 
recovered by putting a couple of iron bolts 
or pieces of iron into the remaining solution, 
upon which it will be found to deposit, and 
is pure, suitable for alloying gold. 


HOW TO UTILIZE GOLD SCRAPS. 

MONG the old scraps of gold which 
accumulate in a jewelry store are many 
pieces which are more or less contaminated 
with soft solder, and as a very small amount 
of this material will render gold unfit to work, 
it stands one in hand to look out that none 
gets in with the scrap we melt. It is well to 
put all such bits as show any trace of this pre¬ 


119 

cious substance into a box by itself and treat 
it in the following manner : Take 4 ounces of 
muriatic acid and add y 2 an ounce of crocus ; 
put these two ingredients into a bottle and 
shake them well together. Put 1 ounce of 
this mixture into 4 ounces of boiling water in 
an ordinary teacup; put the scrap gold con¬ 
taminated with soft solder into the teacup 
and keep the mixture hot over a lamp or gas 
jet, and in a few minutes all the soft solder 
will be dissolved off, leaving the scrap fit to 
be melted with other scrap gold. In a for¬ 
mer article the writer gave a method of melt¬ 
ing, and promised some future time to give 
additional methods for refining scrap and 
gold which worked badly. It is a business 
of a lifetime to be a proficient in gold melting, 
so many details have to be mastered ; trifles 
in themselves, but still going a long way in 
making up the sum of knowledge necessary 
to the gold worker. Economy is one essen¬ 
tial thing in all jewelry repair shops. Save 
your scraps and filings; pick out all the 
scraps large enough to be picked up with 
the tweezers and put into your scrap to be 
melted. In regard to filings you should have 
a good-sized steel magnet to pass through 
your filings to remove all iron and steel filings 
and chips. The manner of using the magnet 
is to simply run the two poles of the magnet 
back and forth through the pan of the bench 
at which you work, brushing off the particles 
of iron as fast as they accumulate, letting the 
iron filing go into the sweep, as they will 
mechanically carry away some gold. The 
sweepings of even a small place is far more 
valuable than most persons would imagine, 
and should be carefully saved. The floor of 
a jewelry repair shop should be carefully laid 
to avoid cracks and comers. The best way, 
if a floor is to be laid new, is to have the 
plank of which the floor is to be laid well 
seasoned and quite narrow. After the floor 
is laid it should be well oiled with boiled lin¬ 
seed oil or painted with oil paint, and the 
cracks puttied with hard putty composed of 
white lead and coach varnish—the kind of 
coach varnish known as rubbing varnish— 
the puttying should be done after the oil is 
applied or the paint put on. The varnish 
putty is difficult to use, as it dries very 
quickly; keep it under water except as fast 
as you use it. If you have an old floor full 
of cracks, put sheet zinc over the whole floor 
where you work ; let the sheets lap well, and 
if a hole wears through, put a piece over it 
as soon as seen. A common soft wood floor 




I 20 


HOW TO UTILIZE GOLD SCRAPS. 


will hold an unbelievable amount of scrap 
and filing, to say nothing about the cracks. 
This is true also of oilcloth, and an old oil¬ 
cloth which has been on the floor for any 
length of time should be burned and the 
ashes put into the sweepings. Scraps of pa¬ 
per and old match sticks lying on the floor 
should all go into the sweepings. These 
sweepings should be put in a tight box or 
barrel until enough have accumulated (say a 
barrel or two) to pay for burning. The way 
to burn sweepings is, if you use a stove, clean 
it out when you are going to burn a lot of 
sweepings, and put the dirt with the scraps 
of paper in a little at a time until all is reduced 
to ashes. A barrel of sweepings will be re¬ 
duced in this way to two or three quarts; 
this reduction is another economy when you 
come to send it to the sweep smelters, which 
it is better to do than to try and recover the 
precious metals it contains yourself.' Such a 
melting furnace as the writer described in a 
former article is a good place to burn sweep¬ 
ings in. The residue of three or four barrels 
of sweepings can be put in an old paper flour 
sack, and the flour sack, which will not per¬ 
mit a particle of anything it contains to es¬ 
cape, can be put in a quite small box and 
shipped to your sweep smelter, whom you 
will notify of the shipment and mention how 
you treated your sweep. After burning such 
a lot of sweepings you, of course, will be 
careful to remove every particle from the 
stove or furnace, as the gold being heavy 
will fall to the bottom. A person work¬ 
ing gold or silver should brush his clothes 
and apron with a bristle clothes-brush kept 
for this purpose before leaving his work. 
Treat filings as follows: They should be 
melted by themselves with a flux composed 
of 2 parts of carbonate of potash [sal tartar) 
and one part of nitrate of potash ( saltpeter ). 
This flux will remove the iron and steel par¬ 
ticles which escaped the magnet. The but¬ 
ton of gold should be remelted with sal-am¬ 
moniac and charcoal powder and cast in the 
ingot-mold. If, on attempting to roll it, it 
cracks, it is a pretty sure indication that 
some lead or tin is present; but if the pre¬ 
caution given above is taken of treating the 
suspected scrap with the muriatic acid and cro¬ 
cus, there is very little danger but the gold will 
come out in condition to roll and work well; 
but if it does crack, remelt it with a flux of 
charcoal and corrosive sublimate, two parts 
(by weight) of charcoal to one of corrosive 
sublimate. This treatment will destrov the 

J 


last trace of lead or tin. Sometimes one 
will get hold of old gold pens with iridium 
points; these points should be carefully re¬ 
moved, as they are pernicious things to get 
into gold you have to work, being so hard 
that a file will not touch them, and they will 
also indent the hard steel rollers. If only 
one or two such points get into an ingot, 
they should be instantly cut out with a small 
cold chisel. But if quite a number of such 
points should get into a lot of gold, the way 
to proceed is to remelt the lot in a crucible 
which has a strongly marked hollow conical 
bottom. The heat should be raised (using 
fine charcoal as a flux) until the gold is ren¬ 
dered very fluid. The crucible should now 
be removed from the fire and allowed to 
cool. On removing the button from the 
crucible, all the pen points will be found to 
have settled to the bottom of the crucible, 
and now are congregated at the very apex 
of the cone of the gold button. The reason 
for this is that iridium being heavier than 
gold (and not melting as easy), when the 
gold was in a melted state settled to the bot¬ 
tom. The part of the button containing the 
iridium points can now be cut off with a cold 
chisel and treated as follows: The gold can 
be dissolved in aqua regia —composed of two 
parts of muriatic acid to one of nitric acid; 
after the gold is dissolved the acid can be 
poured from the points (now visible and 
separated); to the gold solution add oxalic 
acid crystals until the brown deposit ceases; 
this brown deposit is pure gold and can be 
melted into a button with a blow-pipe, using 
carbonate of potash as a flux. 

TO WORK GOLD SCRAPS. 

The following process is very useful for 
working up filings and scraps of gold, gold- 
plated jewelry, etc. It does not, of course, 
refine the gold as in the usual process of 
quartation, but merely destroys the filings 
of copper, silver, German silver, brass, and 
other metals acted upon by the acid. It will 
“ eat ” the solder or brass out of hard-sol¬ 
dered or plated goods, leaving the thin shell 
of gold. The iron filings are thoroughly 
separated from the mass by the repeated use 
of the magnet. All pieces of soft solder and 
lead should be picked out, and if there is 
much soft solder in any of the plated articles, 
it should be melted out, and the residue then 
placed in a shallow glass or china vessel, and 
rather more than covered with good nitric 
acid. When the bubbles cease to agitate it, 


BRITTLE GOLD. 


I 2 I 


the acid should be poured into another cup, 
and if there is any base metal left, more acid 
added, and the mass stirred occasionally with 
a glass rod. When no bubbles appear on 
adding new acid, it may be poured off, and 
the filings, scrap, etc., washed two or three 
times, or until perfectly clean, letting them 
stand a minute or two to settle before pour¬ 
ing off the water. They are then dried and 
melted. The filings and scraps treated in 
this manner seldom require more than one 
melting to make them easily worked and fit 
for jobbing. There is no skill required, only 
considerable care in the handling. The sil¬ 
ver remaining in the acid may be precipitated 
in the ordinary manner with common salt. 
The chloride obtained may be melted into a 
button, and, being pure silver, used as an al¬ 
loy for other gold. 


TO REDUCE JEWELERS’ SWEEPINGS. 

HE fire for burning the sweepingsto re¬ 
duce the bulk should be a smoldering 
one, with as little direct draft as possible, as 
a strong flame has a tendency to carry more 
or less gold up the chimney. The safest and 
most economical method is to put the sweep 
into an iron pot, with an iron cover, and put 
the pot into the furnace and burn the con¬ 
tents out by a slow combustion. But, if the 
process is conducted in a workmanlike man¬ 
ner, with the precaution of making the com¬ 
bustion as slow as possible, very little gold 
will be lost. The acids used in coloring and 
pickling should not be thrown away until 
treated to recover the gold. All wet color¬ 
ing acids and muriatic acid pickle after using 
should be thrown into a stoneware jar, and 
when nearly full treated as follows: A sat¬ 
urated solution of green copperas ( proto-sul¬ 
phate of iron), in the proportion of 8 oz. of 
hot water to i oz. of the sulphate. In get¬ 
ting the sulphate it is best to get such as is 
used for medicinal and chemical purposes, 
as it is essential to be pure; also avoid all 
such pieces as are air slacked or present the 
look of rusty iron; such pieces are chem¬ 
ically changed to such an extent as to be 
deleterious to the process. The solution of 
sulphate should be added to the acids in the 
stoneware vessel until it fails to produce any 
effect. Allow the precipitate to settle (after 
stirring well), when the acid can be poured 
off. The precipitate is nearly pure gold, and 
if of sufficient quantity can be directly re¬ 
covered by melting with a strong flux. By 


a strong flux I mean one which will resist a 
high temperature, as the complete reduction 
of the gold will require intense heat. After 
the precipitate is thoroughly dried, to every 
4 oz. of precipitate add 2 oz. of sal tartar 
[carbonate of potash), 1 oz. of common salt, 1 
oz. of green glass (any glass which contains 
no lead). All the ingredients should be re¬ 
duced to a fine powder and well mixed, when 
it can be put in a crucible. While the melt¬ 
ing is going on a little saltpeter can be added 
occasionally to aid the process. But in small 
quantities the precipitate can be thrown into 
the burnt sweep; as also the old sulphuric 
acid pickle used in jobbing. The true course 
to pursue, as far as scouring is concerned, is 
to look sharp to all the filings of gold on 
plated jobs. There is more gold wasted here 
than in any part of the job shop. And as I 
remarked in a former communication, the 
gold derived from filings seldom or never 
works well; and for this reason it is best to 
melt it into a button, so as to get at the fine¬ 
ness, and sell it to the refiner. The best 
course to pursue with filings (“ letnel," it is 
termed) is to first pass it through a fine sieve 
to remove all pieces of gold of any size; 
these should be put in with the scrap. After 
all the coarse particles of gold and silver are 
removed, the magnet should again be em¬ 
ployed to remove any iron or steel particles 
which may remain. In refining and melting 
filings, for every 12 oz. of filing take 2 oz. of 
sal tartar (carbonate of potash), 1 oz. of com¬ 
mon salt. Mix the filings and flux together 
well, and put them into a crucible and cover 
the mixture with common salt. The crucible 
should now be put into the furnace and a 
continual high melting heat kept up for 30 
or 40 minutes, adding a little saltpeter from 
time to time. Care must be taken to add 
the saltpeter sparingly, as it may cause the 
mixture to rise and flow over. A little very 
dry common salt if added, as indications of 
rising too high occur, will check it. 


BRITTLE GOLD. 

HE goldsmith is often puzzled to soften 
gold so that it can be forged out thin 
without cracking or breaking. Some gold 
can be forged out easily, while other varieties 
are very hard and brittle, because the impuri¬ 
ties or alloys, such as a little lead or zinc, 
tend to make it so. Melting over a stone 
coal fire would do the same. Gold should 
be melted over charcoal or coke, and if of 






122 


DISSOLVING AND PRECIPITATING GOLD. 


low grade, should not be exposed to the heat 
too long. If it has no “ grain,” melt again. 
If it does not take grain, then melt again, 
and add a little saltpeter, and, a little later, 
some borax. For ordinary melting, fuse 
with borax, stir well and add a little sal-am¬ 
moniac just before pouring. In forging gold, 
it must be annealed as often as it begins to 
get hard and brittle. Low grade gold needs 
annealing oftener than fine gold. Heat red 
hot and cool without tempering. 

TO TOUGHEN BRITTLE GOLD. 

If the gold ingot shows sufficient ductility 
to withstand the first two or three anneal¬ 
ings without cracking, it may be considered 
as sufficiently tough for being worked; if, 
however, it cracks, recourse must be had to 
a sort of mold casting, what the French call 
“ brassage.” This process is performed by 
taking a soldering coal sufficiently large to 
receive the ingot. It is prepared for the 
purpose by working with a file, a half round 
hollow in it. The ingot is then heated upon 
a coal to nearly white heat, is laid in the hol¬ 
low of the prepared coal, and covered with 
borax everywhere to facilitate the melting; 
direct the flame of the soldering lamp with a 
heavy wick upon it, using a long blow-pipe; 
maintain the flame until the surface begins 
to melt, whereby all the cracks disappear, 
without raising the temperature sufficiently, 
however, to either shorten the ingot or sepa¬ 
rate it into several pieces. The necessary 
degree of heat will be recognized as soon as 
the bar begins to give way and conforms to 
the smaller angles of the coal, as well as by 
the rainbow hues that begin to appear upon 
its surface, and finally by the disappearance 
of the cracks. When the ingot has reached 
this degree of heat throughout, the operator 
may be assured of its malleability. 


DISSOLVING AND PRECIPITATING 
GOLD. 

WO processes frequently occur in gold- 
smithing and electro-plating, viz., the 
solution and precipitation of gold, and the 
operator often meets with difficulties or is in 
doubt; so valuable a material as gold can¬ 
not be treated with levity. 

As regards the dissolving, the nitro-muri- 
atic acid is generally used in too concentrated 
a state. The workman most generally goes 
by guess work and takes as much as he 
considers about right, now nitric acid, then 


muriatic acid, and finally he is in difficulties 
to remove the excess of acid, especially nitric 
acid. How easy it would be for him to 
compound an aqua regia according to the 
following formula: 

4 parts by weight of crude muriatic acid, 
i part by weight of crude nitric acid, 

5 parts by weight of pure water. 

Of this mixture generally will suffice io 
parts to i part of gold. 

It is enough if the gold is in a passable 
state of division. With thick pieces a little 
more mixture is subsequently to be added, 
until a perfect solution has ensued. It is well 
to weigh also the subsequently added portion. 

The writer performs his solutions in a 
weighed porcelain dish or glass retort in a 
water bath, and is not in any manner troubled 
by the evolving of red vapors. That the 
solution takes place can be seen from the 
outside by the yellow color of the fluid and 
the bubbles arising from the gold. 

A water bath is easily made ; take an iron 
or earthen pot, upon the rim of which the 
dish or the glass retort rests, fill this pot with 
water and heat it. The gold hereby receives 
simply the heat necessary for effecting of 
the solution from the arising steam, and no 
fear need be entertained that something may 
go wrong. One-half of the solution having 
evaporated, which can be ascertained by 
weighing—for instance, you used io grams 
gold and ioo grams aqua regia , there must 
be left 50 to 51 grams; dilute this solution 
to 100 or 200 grams, and you will have a 
solution, each gram of which contains or 
-h gram of gold. 

The writer always found such a solution 
to be free from nitrate, and it may safely be 
used for every recipe. 

THE PRECIPITATION OF GOLD. 

The gold from galvanic baths is easiest 
precipitated with the galvanic current upon 
a smooth copper plate ; the gold which does 
not precipitate as a powder is scraped off 
and purified, as well as that which precipi¬ 
tated as powder. Impure gold, which chiefly 
consists of gold, however, is dissolved in the 
indicated proportions in the aqua regia speci¬ 
fied above; it is then evaporated to one- 
half, diluted with water, filtered and washed 
out with large quantities of water. This 
washing is continued until the escaping fluid 
is water, clear and no longer colored by sul¬ 
phate of iron. 

Meanwhile a solution of handsome crystal- 




ACID COLORING. 


<* 


123 


lized sulphate of iron has been prepared, as 
follows: To 10 grams (6 dwts. 10.32 grains) 
sulphate of iron, 100 grams water and 10 
grams muriatic acid. 

For precipitating the gold suffices the 4 *4 
fold quantity of crystallized green copperas 
of the impure gold used. 

In order to precipitate the gold, pour its 
solution into the copperas solution. The 
gold will very quickly fall down in this di¬ 
luted fluid ; decant the clear liquid, and first 
wash with water acidulated with muriatic 
acid, afterward simply pure water. Collect 
the gold in a porcelain dish, drain off the 
wash water as closely as possible, and let it 
dry in a moderately warm place. 


LAPPING. 

HIS is a distinct process of finishing 
jewelry work. It is not much resorted 
to in colored work, and when it is employed, 
it is sometimes performed before the articles 
are colored, and sometimes after, according 
to choice. It is distinguished from scratch¬ 
ing, by the evenness of surface and the luster 
it leaves upon the parts to which it has been 
applied; and this can be ascertained by an 
examination of the work after this operation. 
It is principally confined to bright gold 
chains and earrings, a class of jewelry to 
which its adaptation is most suitable, as it 
enhances the beauty of their appearance very 
much. The lapper produces the plain and 
diamond-shaped surfaces by the rotary action 
of the lapidary’s wheel, which consists of a 
specially prepared composition disc, secured 
in the lathe vertically upon a horizontal 
spindle. This has a shoulder in the middle, 
against which the disc of metal is firmly held 
by a nut and screw from the other side. 
This lap or disc weighs about five pounds, 
and is made of a mixture of two parts pure 
grain tin to one part of pure lead ; to which, 
for edge-laps, may be judiciously added one 
pennyweight of fine copper to every pound 
of mixture. To effect a complete amalgama¬ 
tion of the component parts, the lead, being 
the least fusible metal, should be first melted 
and the tin afterwards added, first well heat¬ 
ing, to prevent too sudden a chill of the lead. 
If necessary to add the copper, it should be 
melted separately, and added to the other 
ingredients when in the liquid state, and be 
well stirred. Care should be exercised in the 
casting, in order to prevent waste. 

The lap having been properly adjusted by 


skimming, it is then “ headed in,” a process 
performed by the application of flour emery, 
by means of a brush, to the right-hand side 
of the lap, and pressed in with a hard flint 
stone. In heading in a lap, the emery is 
used in the wet state. This done, the gold- 
cutter, as he is familiarly called, takes his 
work, and submits it to the revolving lap or 
disc; but before doing so, he submits it to a 
preparation he has by the side of him, which 
is used for protecting the gilding or surfaces 
not subjected to his particular work. He 
dips the articles into a liquid mixture of gum 
arabic, two parts, and gamboge, one part; 
they are then well dried, but must not be 
overheated; this has a tendency to protect 
the gilding whilst under the manipulative 
skill of the gold-cutter. This gum or cement 
is soluble in hot water; consequently, in 
washing out, it parts from the gold, and 
leaves a color upon the work. The lapping 
process is a curious one, and it is truly mar¬ 
velous to see the skillful and practiced work¬ 
man turning the links of gold chains between 
his thumb and finger with great dexterity and 
accuracy; and while to all appearance it 
seems as if they are being presented in a 
haphazard fashion to the lap, the most per¬ 
fect-shaped diamonds are being produced. 
This is called faceting. 

Square-lapping is now extensively prac¬ 
ticed ; it adds a sharpness and luster to the 
work not equaled by any other means. The 
gold taken from articles during the process 
of lapping remains—the greater portion of it 
at least—upon the lap. The emery cuts and 
retains the gold upon it; this, however, is 
prevented from interfering with the process 
by wiping the side of the lap with a tow of 
cotton waste, dampened with oil. This cot¬ 
ton waste must be strictly preserved and sub¬ 
jected to a special mode of treatment for the 
recovery of the metal. 


ACID COLORING. 

OLORING gold articles is a process 
for dissolving out more or le'ss of the 
alloy, to give them a surface having a dif¬ 
ferent quality or fineness from its previous 
surface. For good gold, that is, 18-karat or 
finer, melt in a common pipkin the following 
articles: No. 1.—Alum, 3 ounces; nitrate 
of potassa (saltpeter), 6 ounces ; sulphate of 
zinc, 3 ounces; common salt, 3 ounces. 
When melted, mix well together, and immerse 
the articles to be colored in it, removing oc- 






ACID COLORING. 


I 24 

casionally to examine the color. When the 
color appears satisfactory remove the articles, 
place them on a piece of sheet iron and allow 
to cool, then immerse in dilute sulphuric or 
acetic acid, which will remove the flux, after 
which they may be rinsed in warm water, to 
which a little potash or soda has been added, 
and finally brushed with hot soap and water, 
again rinsed in hot water, and dried in clean 
warm boxwood sawdust. 

For inferior qualities of gold, that is, from 
18-karat down to 12-karat, use the following 
composition: No. 2.— Nitrate of potassa 
(saltpeter), 4 ounces ; alum, 2 ounces ; com¬ 
mon salt, 2 ounces. Add warm water 
enough to make the whole into a thin paste, 
place it in a small pipkin or crucible, and 
boil. Attach a thin wire to the article to be 
colored, and hang it in the paste, allowing it 
to remain from ten to twenty minutes. Then 
remove it, rinse in hot water, treat it with the 
scratch-brush, rinse again, and replace in the 
coloring pot for a few minutes. The length 
of time it is subjected to the action of the 
coloring bath depends of course on the 
amount of alloy to be removed. When the 
color suits, the article is removed, rinsed and 
scratch-brushed as before, then brushed with 
soap and hot water, again rinsed in hot water, 
and dried in the sawdust. 

When the articles are of as low quality as 
12-karat, if they are slightly made, great care 
must be used or the coloring process will eat 
away so much of their substance as to de¬ 
stroy their strength. The coloring paste 
should not be used on articles lower than 
12-karat. 

Electro-plated articles are often colored, 
but they must have a good thick plate on in 
order to stand it. The following is con¬ 
sidered a good composition: No. 3.—Sul¬ 
phate of copper, 2 dwts.; French verdigris, 
4 y 2 dwts.; chloride of ammonium (sal-am¬ 
moniac), 4 dwts.; nitrate of potassa, 4 dwts.; 
acetic acid, about 20 dwts. 

Reduce the sulphate of copper, sal-am¬ 
moniac and saltpeter to a powder in a mor¬ 
tar, then add the verdigris, and finally pour 
in the acetic acid, a little at a time, stirring 
it well all the while, till the whole becomes a 
bluish-green mass. Dip the article to be 
colored in this, then place on a piece of 
sheet copper, and heat over a clear charcoal 
or coke fire till it becomes black. Then let 
it cool, after which put it into a tolerably 
strong pickle of sulphuric acid and water to 
dissolve off the flux, rinse well in hot water 


containing a little potash or soda, brush with 
soap and hot water, and dry in the sawdust. 
If the article is scratch-brushed being col¬ 
ored, it will come out of the pickle perfectly 
bright. 

Another preparation for coloring either 
gold or plated articles is: No. 4.—Nitrate 
of potash, 5 ounces; alum, 2 ounces; sul¬ 
phate of iron, 1 ounce; sulphate of zinc, 1 
ounce. Mix well together, then add water 
to form a thin paste. Dip the article in this, 
gently shake off any superfluous paste, place 
on a piece of sheet copper and heat till dry. 
Then increase the heat for two or three min¬ 
utes, plunge into cold water, and finish as 
before described. 

Preparation No. 1 may also be used for 
coloring plated goods (heavily plated), by 
dipping the articles in and heating, etc., as 
described under No. 4, till nearly black, then 
plunge into cold water and finish as there 
directed. 

Gilt articles of poor color (as well as gold 
articles) may be improved by the use of gild¬ 
er’s wax, No. 1 ; beeswax, 4 parts; verdigris, 
1 part; sulphate of copper, 1 part. Melt 
and mix well together. No. 2.—Beeswax, 
5 parts; alum, 1 part; verdigris, 1 y 2 parts; 
red ocher, 1 part. Melt the beeswax and 
mix well together. 

This wax is used by heating the article, 
rubbing the compound over it, then placing 
it on red-hot charcoal till the wax is all 
burned off. Place in very dilute sulphuric 
acid to clean it, scratch-brush it, wash, etc., 
as before. 

Nearly every manufacturer has his own 
secret process for “ coloring ” gold, which 
they are not at all likely to give away. But 
the foregoing processes are considered good, 
and will doubtless meet all the cases. 

ACID COLOR FOR 14-KARAT GOLD. 

Saltpeter, 4 parts; salt, 2 parts; mu¬ 
riatic acid, 3 parts. Put the first two in¬ 
gredients in the pot and heat strongly; add 
a little water; let boil up and when it 
becomes a thin paste add the muriatic acid; 
stir and put in the work, taking care to com¬ 
pletely submerge it in the color; let it boil 
two minutes, then add as much water as you 
did muriatic acid, make it boil quickly again 
for two minutes, take out the work, boil in 
hot water, then in another pot of hot water 
to which a few drops of muriatic acid have 
been added, and afterward rinse in hot water 
and dry in sawdust. 


PREPARING FOR WET COLORING. 


125 


ACID-COLORING SOLID GOLD. 

Saltpeter, 2 parts; salt, 1 part; muriatic 
acid, 1 part. Put saltpeter and salt into 
the coloring pot, and heat it without water, 
then add hot water sufficient to produce 
a thick paste, let it boil, add the muriatic 
acid and stir it up well. As soon as the 
brown vapor arises, plunge in the work 
quickly, being careful to submerge it com¬ 
pletely (since the vapor will affect the work 
if exposed to it). Let the work boil over a 
quick and lively fire (and preserve it during 
the whole process) for about three minutes, 
stirring it about constantly, taking care not 
to let any part of it come to the surface of 
the liquid. Then rinse the work in a light 
pickle, and thereupon plunge it into hot 
water. Quick and careful handling in dip¬ 
ping in and taking out the work is important. 
This done, the acid color should be thinned 
by adding hot water, or one-half old color, 
which is preferable. Submerge the work 
again, let it boil two minutes, and should 
some pieces require it, such should boil one 
minute longer. Now boil the work in a 
pickle, two thimblefuls of muriatic acid to 
one gallon of water, then again in a pickle 
containing only a few drops of acid, then dry 
off the work catefully in hot sawdust. Re¬ 
member that work not properly dried will 
draw spots. 

ACID-COLORING SMALL ARTICLES. 

For acid-coloring on gold for small ar¬ 
ticles, a very good plan is to place them on 
a lump of charcoal, and make them red hot 
under the blow-pipe flame, and then throw 
them into a pickle composed of about 35 
drops strong sulphuric acid to one ounce of 
water, allowing the article to remain therein 
until the color is sufficiently developed; 
washing the article in warm water in which 
a little potash has been dissolved, using a 
brush, and finally rinsing and drying in box¬ 
wood sawdust, completes the operation. 


PREPARING FOR WET COLORING. 

HERE are several methods of prepar¬ 
ing work for wet coloring, each oper¬ 
ator adopting the one which suits him best 
and appears to claim an advantage over the 
others. We do not intend to assert that 
there is any particular advantage in the adop¬ 
tion of any particular process. The main 
principles are thorough polishing (this need 


not be so much the case as for dry coloring, 
though it is of great importance) and cleanli¬ 
ness, the latter element being very essential 
in the production of a good color. The oper¬ 
ator cannot be too careful in enforcing these 
two conditions. 

Some persons prefer to color from the 
black anneal; others to boil for a time in 
nitric acid pickle; others, again, after the 
work has been well annealed, boil out in sul¬ 
phuric acid pickle, and afterward in clean 
water. In adopting any of these plans, the 
method is that after the work has been well 
polished by means of the finest materials and 
washed out, it must be placed upon an iron 
or copper pan and heated to redness over a 
clear fire, the latter proceeding being of im¬ 
portance. If it appears greasy in the inter¬ 
stices and it is desired to color it black, it 
should be boiled out again and annealed; it 
may then be placed aside to cool, and after¬ 
ward suspended upon the wires usually em¬ 
ployed for this purpose. In the work of re¬ 
coloring articles it is by far the best plan to 
anneal them. Where this can be done, boil 
them out and again anneal them, which is 
easily performed. It is an economical plan 
to re-color goods of this sort in old color, 
which should always be preserved for the 
purpose. If this appears dry, or nearly so, 
when put into the pot, add one ounce of acid 
and one ounce of water; if tolerably liquid 
make no addition whatever, for, in some in¬ 
stances, and especially where the alloys con¬ 
tain a great proportion of copper, the weaker 
the preparation the better and brighter is the 
color produced upon the work. 

FINISHING THE WORK. 

After the process of wet coloring, it is ab¬ 
solutely necessary' that the work should go 
through another operation, that of “scratch¬ 
ing,” which consists of submitting it to the 
revolving action of a circular brush of fine 
brass wire, mounted upon a lathe after the 
manner of the round hair brushes used in 
polishing, and upon which a weak solution 
of ale is allowed to run from a small barrel 
with a tap to it. This removes any dull 
color that may be upon the work and gives 
it a perfectly bright and uniform surface. 
Frosting is effected by T keeping the points of 
the wires of the brush quite straight and run¬ 
ning the lathe very fast, just letting the ends 
touch the surface of the work; to do this 
accurately requires great practice. After 
this process has been performed, the work 




AN EXCELLENT WET COLORING. 


i 26 

must be well rinsed in either hot or cold 
water, and finally dried in warm boxwood 
sawdust, which must not be allowed to burn 
or char in any way; if so, the color of the 
work will be much damaged and its beauty 
marred. A soft brush will remove all traces 
of sawdust from the interstices of the articles 
which have passed through this operation. 


WET COLORING BY THE GERMAN 
PROCESS. 

IE up your work in small bunches with 
fine silver or platinum wire; then, for 
3 ounces of work, take a black lead pot 6 
or 7 inches high, and having previously 
placed your work in hot water, put into it 6 
ounces of saltpeter and 3 ounces of common 
salt; stir them well with a wooden spoon, 
and when thoroughly dried fine and hot add 
also 5 fluid ounces of hydrochloric acid. 
When boiling up, put in your bunch of work, 
having previously shaken the water from it, 
and keep it moving for three minutes, taking 
care to keep it well covered all the time of 
the operation. At the end of this time take 
it out, and plunge it into a vessel of clean 
hot water, and finally into a second vessel of 
the same. Then add to your color in the 
pot 6 fluid ounces of hot water, and when it 
boils up again after having been thus diluted, 
put in your work for one minute longer, and 
again rinse it as before directed, when it will 
be found to be of a beautiful color. Too 
much clean hot water cannot be used for 
plunging the work into each time. 

If the work is hollow and bulky, not as 
much as 3 ounces should be put in, as it is 
not effectually immersed in the pot. 

In wet coloring, it sometimes happens that 
the color is rather dead, or it may happen 
that the “ color ” burns, which causes the 
work to look brown; this is a precipitation 
which may be removed by scratch-brushing 
at the lathe with stale beer, using a fine brass 
wire brush similar to the round hair brushes 
used for polishing. 

In coloring, a large stone jar should also 
be provided, into which should be emptied 
your “ color,” when done with, because the 
pot should be worked out each time, so as to 
be ready when wanted again ; also the wash- 
water used, as it contains quite a percentage 
of gold. All things in connection with the 
process should be kept clean and free from 
grease of any kind. Do not keep iron near this 
wet color in the pot, as it is most injurious. 


AN EXCELLENT WET COLORING. 

MIXTURE for wet-coloring, such as the 
following, may be applied w T ith advan¬ 
tage, and if a moderate amount of skill be 
employed during the operation, certain suc¬ 
cess is sure to follow the process when red 
eighteen-karat gold jewelry is treated with 
it. The ingredients employed are as fol¬ 
lows, when small work is to be heightened 
in color: 


Saltpeter. 6 ounces 

Common salt. 3 ounces 

Alum. 3 ounces 


12 ounces 

A color pot or crucible is provided with 
straight sides, into which is put the salts, 
which should have been previously well pul¬ 
verized and mixed together with the hands. 
Now place the color pot upon the fire (a gas 
jet is by far the best substitute, as the power 
of the heat can be regulated at will, without 
the removal of the color pot from the posi¬ 
tion in which it was first placed), and dis¬ 
solve the mixture very carefully and slowly 
so as not to burn the coloring composition. 
Stir occasionally during the dissolution of the 
salts. When the latter have dissolved, the 
mixture will rise somewhat in the pot, and 
then it is time to place in the work, which 
must be superseded by a wire of platinum 
of suitable dimensions to the work in hand. 
The work should be gently moved about 
while in the pot, and occasionally withdrawn 
to inspect its color. Dipping in acid water 
removes any color that adheres to the sur¬ 
face of the work, and which occasionally 
prevents a proper and satisfactory inspection 
of it. The acids used mostly for the pur¬ 
pose are nitric, muriatic, and sulphuric acids; 
either one may be used in the proportion of 
one of acid to twenty of boiling water. Be 
careful in adding the sulphuric acid to the 
water, as it will fly about and scald or burn, 
if it comes in contact with the flesh or clothes 
of the operator. The water hanging to the 
work after each rinse should be well shaken 
from it before re-dipping in the color 
pot. The time occupied in the process, if 
the alloy and other particulars absolutely 
necessary to the true performance of it 
are in accord, will be about four or five 
minutes. 

After the dissolution of the coloring salts, 
the heat kept up should not be too intense 









ELECTRO FIRE-GILDING AND SILVERING. 


1 27 


during the period occupied in coloring; if 
so, the paste or composition is not at all 
unlikely to become devoid of the necessary 
moisture before the allotted time has expired, 
which, practically, is required to the ter¬ 
mination of the treatment. A very slow 
fire, or still better, a gas jet is best for the 
purpose of accomplishing the common ob¬ 
ject in view, viz., the highest and richest 
color to the work under treatment, and 
that in the simplest and easiest manner pos¬ 
sible. 

The coloring mixture may be employed 
for 16-karat, and also for as low as 15-karat 
gold if the alloys are red gold. But for such 
a purpose its preparation and application is 
somewhat different to that just described, as 
well as to the length of time occupied in the 
process. 

For a small batch of work the quantities 
may be the same as those already stated, 
although larger quantities can be used with 
the same success that attends the smaller 
ones, taking extra work in proportion to 
increase the color. The best relation be¬ 
tween the work and the color would be as 
one to three, four and five; that is, the 
mixture given will be sufficient to color four 
ounces of solid work, such as chains, three 
ounces of hollow work, or two ounces of 
light work, with large surfaces. Always re¬ 
member that it is in proportion to the sur¬ 
face of the work that you have to provide 
a coloring mixture, and not to its absolute 
weight, to be accurate and correct in your 
results. 

In coloring with the too inferior qualities 
named above, it is necessary to add water 
to the salts in the pot, in order to keep them 
moist during their period of action, which 
takes a much longer time than the one we 
have already given the details of to produce 
a color intense enough for the trades. Two 
ounces of water will be sufficient to put to 
the mixed salts, which must be allowed to 
boil. When this takes place, take the batch 
of work encircled with a wire of platinum or 
silver, and put it in the mixture, and there 
let it remain for about fifteen minutes, when 
it should be withdrawn and instantly plunged 
into boiling water provided in a pan for the 
purpose. The work during the above period 
may occasionally be withdrawn and rinsed 
in order to inspect its progress, and some¬ 
times this is found to be an advantage, as 
the right color is produced more quickly at 
times than others. 


ELECTRO FIRE-GILDING AND 
SILVERING. 

OMPLAINTS against the durability of 
the ordinary electro gilding and silver¬ 
ing by contact or limited battery, and of the 
abrasions, when exposed to wind and weather, 
or friction, as compared to the good old fire¬ 
gilding, are very frequent, although the for¬ 
mer is generally acknowledged to have a 
richer appearance than the latter. The 
reason for these complaints are based upon 
the facts that the deposit of the precious 
metals by the galvano-electric system are not 
of a solid and compact nature. Experience 
has taught that electro-gilt ornaments at¬ 
tached to church-yard monuments, lightning 
conductors, crosses, balls, eagles, and other 
ornaments on church steeples and public 
buildings, very soon tarnish, which is fully 
proved to be the cause of the unsolid and 
porous deposit of the gold on the metal form¬ 
ing the base of the articles. 

To effect good substantial deposit of gold 
or silver by electricity, we are compelled to 
take recourse to batteries of great capacity, 
dynamo-electric apparatus worked by steam 
power arrangements which to purchase and 
to maintain entail expenses too large to be 
borne by the jeweler or watchmaker who 
conducts his business on a limited scale, and 
who, if even in a position to purchase and 
maintain these extensive appurtenances, in 
very rare instances has sufficient work to 
realize a profit to warrant and encourage the 
outlay. 

In order to overcome the instability of 
the deposit by electro-gilding, and to avoid 
the heavy expense of costly apparatus, while 
securing at the same time a good deposit by 
electricity, the following procedure is recom¬ 
mended as practically good and satisfactorily 
effective. 

To the ordinary gold solution for electro¬ 
gilding add some mercury previously dis¬ 
solved in nitric acid; this solution, diluted 
with water and neutralized of the acid by 
adding small quantities of spirits of ammonia 
until immersed litmus paper does not change 
its blue color into red. Previous to dissolv¬ 
ing the mercury in the acid, it is necessary 
to free it from the lead, with which commer¬ 
cial mercury is generally contaminated, and 
this is effected simply by passing the mercury 
through a piece of wash-leather, which will 
allow the mercury to pass through on squeez-1 
ing it and retain the lead. 

This prepared gold solution will be a mer- 



128 


REPAIRING JEWELRY. 


curial-gold amalgam of a fluid or watery 
nature, and should not be mixed in larger 
quantities than required for immediate use. 
The articles to be gilt are immersed in this 
solution appended to the wire in connection 
with the cathode (zinc) of any battery, and 
will receive a gold deposit of a quicksilver 
appearance, after the article has remained 
sufficient time in the solution. It is then 
withdrawn, rinsed in water, and laid on a 
fresh fire made of small pieces of charcoal, 
until the mercury has evaporated, which 
takes place very soon, as the quantity of mer¬ 
cury is very small in proportion to the gold 
deposit, although the color of the former 
predominates. After the evaporation of the 
mercury, the article has all the characteristics 
in color and toughness of fire-gilding—pale 
yellow and dead surface. The article is then 
scratch-brushed in beer and will assume a 
fine luster. If a heavy deposit of.gold is re¬ 
quired, the operation may be repeated after 
each scratch-brushing. By weighing the ar¬ 
ticle before the first immersion into the gold 
solution, and again after the last scratch- 
brushing, the weight of the gold deposited 
can be ascertained very accurately. In the 
last evaporation, the article is left for about 
half a minute or so longer on the fire than 
necessary for driving off the mercury, which 
will deepen the color of the gilding. After 
a final scratch-brushing, the article may be 
gilded in an ordinary gold solution without 
the addition of mercury, by which the rich¬ 
ness of color of electro-gilding and the dura¬ 
bility of fire-gilding are combined. 

This kind of gilding is accomplished with 
much less trouble, and what is of great im¬ 
portance, attended with less, or no more, 
danger than fire-gilding on the old method, 
which requires the continual handling of a 
large quantity of mercury so injurious to 
health, as the deposit of mercury in combina¬ 
tion with the gold deposit in electro fire-gild¬ 
ing is so slight as to evaporate almost in¬ 
stantly, and affords the great advantage of a 
regular deposit of gold, not only on the sur¬ 
face, but in the hollows and interstices of 
the articles to be gilt. If any places or por¬ 
tions of the articles do not require gilding, 
these places can be prevented from receiving 
the deposit by a coating of copal varnish 
mixed with a little rouge powder, and dry¬ 
ing in a warm place before immersion in the 
gold solution. 

The same method may be advantageously 
applied to electro fire-silvering, by employ¬ 


ing silver solutions, and the results are ex¬ 
cellent. 

Care must be taken that the mercurial gold 
or silver solutions are carefully kept apart 
from the ordinary gold and silver solution. 

Silvering by fire has been very much neg¬ 
lected, and preference given to electro-plat¬ 
ing, but fire-gilding is still practiced to a 
considerable extent, and the careful perusal 
of the above cannot fail to convince the 
practical man that the combination of electro 
fire-gilding not only fully replaces the ordi¬ 
nary and antiquated process of fire-gilding, 
but effects at the same time a great saving 
of precious metal, which would unavoidably 
be lost in fire-gilding, while at the same time 
presenting all the advantages to be derived 
from that method. 


REPAIRING JEWELRY. 

ROBABLY there is nothing which 
builds up the reputation of a jeweler 
more easily than the neat and substantial 
repairing of the jewelry of his patrons. The 
intrinsic value of a filled ring may be almost 
nothing, but to the owner it is surrounded by 
a halo of associations which give it priceless 
worth, and if broken by accident, its neat 
repairing is very highly appreciated. So also 
the cleaning of jewelry, which, through dis¬ 
coloration, has lost its beauty, is often looked 
upon with delight as marvelous; therefore, 
a few hints on this subject may be of use to 
some who have met with difficulty in making 
to their satisfaction such repairs to articles 
of jewelry that are almost of every-day oc¬ 
currence. 

It is of first importance that the use of soft 
solder be avoided as far as possible in repair¬ 
ing articles of gold or silver, and even filled 
and plated jewelry may be repaired with hard 
solder. 

To repair a ring, the shank of which re¬ 
quires soldering, bury the head in a crucible 
of wet sand, place a small piece of charcoal 
against one side, coat the break, previously 
cleaned by filing or scraping, with borax, and 
charge with solder; blow a flame against the 
ring and charcoal until the solder runs in. 
For articles which require to be protected 
from discoloring in the process of soldering, 
coat them with a mixture of burnt yellow 
ocher and borax, adding a little dissolved 
gum tragacanth to make it lay all over, allow 
it to dry, then charge with borax and solder 
and heat sufficiently ; boil out in weak pickle 




THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


made of nitric or sulphuric acid. One im¬ 
portant point is to wash the piece well in hot 
water with a little ammonia in it before at¬ 
tempting any repairs; this removes all dirt 
and grease, which, if burned on, cannot be 
removed. 

If the article be of colored gold, boil out 
in pickle made of muriatic acid, and never 
coat with any protecting mixture. The sol¬ 
der must vary in regard to fusibility accord¬ 
ing to the quality of the article. For repair¬ 
ing most filled work, very easily melted solder 
is required, which may be made of one ounce 
fine silver, ten pennyweights hard brass wire, 
adding two pennyweights zinc just before 
pouring ; or, to make it more fusible, use bar 
tin instead of zinc; or, for strong silver 
solder, use only the silver and brass. For 
repairing most bright gold work, use gold 
coin, three pennyweights; fine silver, three 
pennyweights; fine copper, two penny¬ 
weights. For colored work, fine gold, one 
pennyweight; silver, seventeen grains ; cop¬ 
per, twelve grains; hard brass wire, two 
grains. 

A good solder for repairing spectacles or 
other steel work is made by melting together 
equal parts of silver and copper. In solder¬ 
ing steel, plenty of borax should be used. 

Very often the want of a rolling mill is a 
great obstacle to the making of solder, but 
it may be flattened very thin, although not 
with great regularity, by pouring into a flat 
piece of wood, and putting the flat surface 
of a piece of iron, while it is still in a melted 
condition; a piece of cigar box is good to 
pour it on, as the odor emitted is not very 
disagreeable, and the solder may be melted 
in the hollow of a piece of charcoal, by using 
gas and a blow-pipe. 

For cleaning colored gold, a mixture of 
one pound sal soda, one pound chloride of 
lime, and one quart of water will be found 
useful; it should be placed outside the build¬ 
ing after mixing, and when settled, the liquor 
poured off and the sediment thrown away; 
with great care this may be used for cleaning 
gilt bronzes, and cheap gold, and plated jew¬ 
elry, but caution is necessary, as it will cor¬ 
rode brass very rapidly. 

To remove lead solder from badly repaired 
jewelry, place the piece in muriatic acid and 
leave it till the lead is eaten away. It is al¬ 
ways best to heat the piece gently and brush 
off the lead, while melted, before subjecting 
the piece to the action of the acid, as too 
long a steeping is not desirable. 


129 

Set pearls, which have become discolored 
by wear, may often be improved by placing 
in a covered vessel with a mixture of whiting, 
ammonia and water, and permitting them to 
remain a few hours. 

A good powder for cleaning jewelry, silver 
watch cases, etc., is made by mixing about 
four parts of whiting with alcohol or water; 
this, it will be found, is easily brushed out 
of crevices, engravings, etc. Many are not 
aware of the fact that the gold and the jet 
jewelry, which has been worn so much for 
years, can be hard soldered with easy run¬ 
ning solder without removing the jets, but it 
is easily accomplished by coating the gold 
with ocher, and laying the piece with the jets 
up while soldering, care being taken not to 
smoke the jets; an alcohol lamp is perhaps 
preferable to gas for this purpose, but in 
most cases gas answers best for soldering. 


THE ART OF ENAMELING. 

HEN an enameler lives at a convenient 
distance, it is better to send your work 
to him ; this, however, is not always possible, 
as these artisans are generally to be found 
only in large cities, and for obvious reasons, 
a certain piece of work requiring his assist¬ 
ance, cannot always be sent to him. In such 
cases, it is well if the country jeweler knows 
how to help himself, and any intelligent 
workman will, by the exercise of a little com¬ 
mon sense, soon attain the necessary skill. 
This article is intended to give him simple 
and practical instruction in the method. 

Enamel is a glass which fuses at a lower 
degree of heat than the ordinary kind ; it is 
manufactured in so many ways and of so 
many different compositions that to give all 
the formulae would lengthen this article inordi¬ 
nately. The basis consists generally of silica 
(quartz powder or white sand), carbonate of 
soda, and oxides of tin and lead, and the 
different colors are produced by metallic ox¬ 
ides ; consequently enamels are of a metallic 
nature. 

The colors of the enamel are liable to 
change on silver, and on copper they will 
generally turn bluish and greenish around the 
edge; to prevent this, a ground of white 
enamel is fused on first. The colors do not 
change on gold, and this metal is therefore 
suited best for the purpose; reddish gold is 
the handsomest of all alloys. 

To prevent the chipping of the alloy, al¬ 
ways prepare a fresh alloy of gold, to be of 




130 


THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


at least 14 karats. To prevent the chipping 
of the enamel on hollow articles, strengthen 
them from behind with so-called counter¬ 
enamel. 

CLEANING THE SILICA. 

The silica best suited for the basis (the frit 
or fritz) is colorless quartz (rock crystal), 
which is heated and thrown into water, to 
make it vitreous ; it is next pulverized finely. 
If the operator desires to use white quartz 
sand, it must be cleansed first. This is done 
by pouring over it equal parts of hydrochloric 
acid and water; it is left to stand for several 
days and then washed with water ten to 
twenty times. In a test melting of a sample, 
with the other necessary ingredients, a pure 
white mass that shows no shade of green 
must result; if such is not the case, the sand 
still contains traces of iron. 

The sand may also be purified by mixing 
it with one-fourth of its weight of table salt, 
and glow-heating it in a plumbago crucible. 
The peroxide of iron present and the table 
salt decompose each other and form chloride 
of iron, which evaporates, while the soda en¬ 
ters into combination with the silica. 

MAKING THE FRIT. 

The glow-heated mass may, by mixing 
with red lead and smelting, be reduced at 
once into a frit, which represents a glass of 
lead, soda and silica. Take: Quartz sand, 
100 parts; table salt, 25 parts; and smelt 
with red lead, 25 parts. The soda (carbon¬ 
ate of soda) used in enameling must also be 
free from iron. The chalk used for the same 
purpose must be perfectly white ; yellow spots 
betray the presence of peroxide of iron, and 
a product made with it would be useless. 

PREPARING THE PEROXIDES OF TIN AND 
LEAD. 

The white coloring substance in the base 
or frit is, as already stated, generally peroxide 
of tin, to which peroxide of lead is also added 
occasionally. This peroxide of tin is on a 
large scale generally prepared by smelting 2 
parts tin and 1 part lead in a very flat por¬ 
celain dish over live coals, and heating the 
alloy beyond the point of fusion. This alloy 
will soon be coated with a white (yellow in 
heat) skin of peroxide, which is with a glass 
rod pushed to one side, when a new film is 
formed, and this is continued until all the 
metal has been oxidized. The oxide is then 
separated by washing it from the metallic 


parts. It is more advantageous, however, 
to do as follows: The tin and lead, reduced 
to small pieces, are treated in a porcelain 
dish with concentrated nitric acid; the 
metals are violently affected thereby, and 
evolve brown vapor; the lead is dissolved, 
while the tin is changed into a white powder 
—the peroxide of tin. Corrosion being fin¬ 
ished (no more brown vapor must evolve, on 
the addition of nitric acid), the whole is 
slowly evaporated to dryness, and the white 
pieces of the mass are glow-heated in a cru¬ 
cible ; the nitrate of lead dissociates and 
forms peroxide of lead, and in this manner a 
mixture of pure peroxide of tin and peroxide 
of lead is obtained. If the operator desires 
to produce peroxide of tin alone, he can treat 
the tin with nitric acid, and after the develop¬ 
ment of the brown vapor has ceased, heat the 
fluid to boiling,—finally obtaining the powder 
of the tin peroxide, which he dries. 

Useful mixtures for the production of frit 
can be composed in the following propor¬ 
tions : 

I. 

Tin (oxidized), 2 parts; lead (oxidized), 1 
part. Of this mixture take 1 part, melted with 
crystal glass 2 parts, and saltpeter, 0.1 part. 
The saltpeter is for the purpose of converting 
any traces of very strongly (green) coloring 
protoxide of iron into the much less strongly 
(yellow) coloring peroxide of iron. 

II. 

Crystal glass, 30 parts; antimoniate of 
soda, 1 o parts; saltpeter, 1 part. This frit 
contains no peroxide of tin. 

The above specified substance, obtained 
by the smelting of table salt, quartz sand, 
and minium, is a colorless glass; in order to 
change it into white enameling mass, the 
weight of the glass of peroxide of tin is 
added. If a frit of an especially high color¬ 
ing capacity is desired, the quantity of the 
tin is still increased 5, 10, or 20 per cent. 

SMELTING THE FRIT. 

* 

In the melting of the frit, blistery lumps 
of an unequal color are obtained first; some 
places are highly transparent, while others are 
perfectly white, being charged with the per¬ 
oxide. In order to correct this inequalitv, 
the substance is to be powdered and smelted ; 
repeating this operation until the color is 
uniform. The greatest cleanliness is neces¬ 
sary in these various remeltings; neither 


THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


ashes nor fire gases must in any manner be 
permitted to enter into the crucible, as the 
result would be a miscolored enamel. 

By pouring the fusing mass of enamel in 
a thin stream into cold water, it will by the 
sudden cooling off become so brittle that it 
can be pulverized readily. As above stated, 
the enameling mass is to be fused repeatedly, 
until the color is perfectly uniform. Only 
when this is produced, it is pulverized as 
finely as possible, and by crushing reduced 
to an impalpable powder. 

The frit produced by the above detailed 
formulae is either used by itself or else as a 
basis for certain other colors. In the former 
case, it is frequently used as smelt for the 
manufacturer of watch dials or used on arti¬ 
cles of copper, silver, and gold, which receive 
thereby the appearance of porcelain. Beau¬ 
tiful specimens of art objects of this kind, 
especially bonbonnieres and jewelry boxes, 
were in the 17th century manufactured by 
French artists ; they are still sought and pur¬ 
chased at high prices by collectors. 

If the frit is to be smelted upon sheet silver 
or gold, it is necessary only to apply enough 
to just cover the metallic ground. When 
copper or bronze plates—and for larger 
enamel pictures copper is almost always used 
—are to be coated, a thicker coating of the 
frit is to be applied. 

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRIT. 

By comparing a sheet of gold and one 
of copper, on both of which the frit was 
applied equally thick, the latter metal will 
appear only bluish or greenish white. By 
chipping off a corner of the coating, this 
will be found green on the side to the metal, 
because when fused on, it dissolved a little 
of the copper. This may be prevented by 
making the frit coating a little heavier. This 
is applied upon the well polished metal sur¬ 
face, moistening this, and dusting the frit 
powder, tied in a linen rag, very uniformly 
upon it. This done, the spots which are not 
to be enameled are cleaned from the frit, and 
this is fused. 

FUSING. 

It is best to perform this operation at 
once; if it cannot be done at the time, the 
article must be very carefully protected 
against dust or accidental rubbing off of the 
loose powder. The fusing is always per¬ 
formed in the muffle ; if the article has curved 
surfaces, great care is necessary, because the 


131 

readily fusible mass will soon be so fluid that 
it leaves the higher places, and the metallic 
face will show at these places, while at the 
places where the coating is thicker, it is apt 
to chip off. / 

VARIOUS FORMULA: FOR COMPOUNDING FRITS. 

Certain colors can at once be applied upon 
this basis; they are those which fuse at a 
high temperature, without altering their 
color; these are especially blue (protoxide 
of cobalt), dark red (peroxide of iron and 
alumina), black (protoxide of iron), and 
brown (peroxide of iron). The other colors, 
however, cannot stand the high temperature 
necessary for smelting the frit, and change 
their hue. If, therefore, enamel paintings 
are to be made upon the white frit, a color¬ 
less covering frit, consisting of an easily fusi¬ 
ble glass, has to be applied first. Such a 
covering frit, suitable for every color, is com¬ 
pounded according to the following formula: 

Frit No. 1. 

Parts by weight. 


Quartz powder.60 

Alum (free from iron).30 

Table salt.35 

Minium.100 

Magnesia.5 


This mixture, which in its composition is 
equal to a lead glass, can be made still more 
fusible by decreasing the quantity of the 
alum one-half; the degree of fusibility is still 
increased by leaving the alum out entirely. 

For very sensitive colors, especially those 
produced with purple of cassius, from rose to 
deep purple, it is better to use the following 
covering frit, which smelts easily, and exerts 
no influence upon even the most delicate 
hues. 

Frit No. 2. 

Parts by weight. 


Quartz powder.3 

Washed chalk.1 

Calcined borax.3 


Many enamel painters work in such a 
manner that they fuse upon the basis the 
covering frit, and execute the painting upon 
this; the work, however, may be simplified 
by melting the covering frit at once with the 
color, and painting with this mixture. The 
frit then fuses together with the color, and 
adheres to the basis. 

For producing these painting colors, the 
pulverized covering frit is, by washing, 
changed into a very fine powder, mixed with 










13 2 


THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


the corresponding color in very definite pro¬ 
portions, and the whole is smelted in small 
crucibles. The fused mass is then pulverized 
and washed again, and can be used for paint¬ 
ing. It is evident that in this manner the 
fused color is only of one deep shade; in 
order to have graduation the cqpposition is 
to be toned down by an addition of colorless 
covering frit, and it is advisable to prepare 
an assortment of ten shades, calling the un¬ 
adulterated substance No. i ; a somewhat 
lighter shade is obtained by smelting 90 parts 
of No. 1 with 10 parts of the colorless frit; 
No. 3 is composed of 80 parts; Nos. 1 and 
20 of the latter, etc. In order to be certain 
of the effects produced by each number, it 
is well to prepare a sample plate with the ten 
numbers. The painter must often have more 
than these ten grades, and he must then rely 
on his skill and practice to prepare interme¬ 
diate ones, to be produced in the same man¬ 
ner as the first. 

The colors ground, with lavender oil, are 
applied upon the covering frit with a brush. 
The picture, when finished, is next subjected 
to fusing, and the greatest amount of care 
must be exerted in this process, because by 
a slightly incautious treatment, at the last 
moment when about finished, the whole work 
may be utterly ruined. The muffle, in which 
the enamel picture is to be fused, must be 
only warm enough to smelt the covering frit; 
the article is first gradually warmed, because 
by a precipitate heating the enamel layer 
might crack on account of the unequal de¬ 
gree of expansion of the latter and of the 
metal. The pre-heated article is then in¬ 
serted into the muffle, and left in it until the 
covering frit arrives at a state of fusion, and 
unites with the base frit. By an unduly 
strong heating the covering frit becomes so 
highly fluid that the individual colors merge 
into each other, and the picture does not 
have any clear and plain contours, but looks 
blurred, which, of course, deteriorates the 
value of the small delicate pictures which are 
occasionally used as ornaments on jewelry. 

THE ENAMELING WITH ENAMEL PASTE. 

From above details of the work necessary 
for enamel painting, it will be seen that this 
art is very laborious, and requires consider¬ 
able amount of attention; it is, therefore, 
appropriate only on high-class jewelry. It is 
often desirable, however, to use enamel on 
lower-grade jewelry, and this may be done 
by using the so-called enamel paste. This 


consists of a covering frit, 

which, by a suit- 

able variation of mixture proportions, has had 
imparted to it a lower degree of fusion ; for 
instance, according to the following propor- 

tions: 

Parts by weight. 

Silicious (quartz) sud. 


Chalk. 

. 30 

Calcined borax. 

.60 

Minium. 

.io- 3 ° 

Tin oxide. 

..- 5 - 9 ° 


This charge, after having been smelted, is 
powdered coarsely and again smelted with 
the addition of such pigments as stand a high 
degree of heat. Colored masses, which, ac¬ 
cording to the pigment used, show a superior 
or inferior degree of intensity, for instance, 
protoxide of cobalt produces shades from 
light forget-me-not blue to the darkest pansy- 
blue ; sesquioxide of iron and alumina dark 
red; a large quantity of protoxide of iron 
makes a black, etc. These color pastes are 
in a smelted condition poured into water, 
powdered, and for large surfaces they are 
fused in the muffle, while for smaller ones, 
they are simply fused with the blow-pipe. 
Before applying the enamel paste, the pre¬ 
viously brightened surface is moistened with 
borax solution ; the mass is then applied, first 
heated over live coals, in order to evaporate 
the water, and then fused. The entire work 
of enameling is performed at one operation. 

THE ENAMEL COLORS. 

The enamel painter has at his disposal 
quite a large list of colors, and by suitable 
mixtures he is able to compose any shade 
desired. His paints are : 

For white: Oxide of tin. 

For yellow: Oxide of antimony, antimo- 
nious potash, antimoniate of potash, antimo- 
niate of lead, oxide of silver, oxide of iron, 
oxide of uranium. 

For red: Oxide of iron and alumina, so¬ 
dium and chloride of gold, chloride of tin 
and chloride of gold, purple of Cassius. 

For orange: A mixture of yellow and red ; 
brown pigments. 

For green: Oxide of copper, oxide of 
chrome or protoxide of iron. 

For blue: Protoxide of cobalt, silicate of 
cobalt (so-called smalt), zoffre. 

For violet: Oxide of manganese. 

For brown: Oxide of iron. 

For black: Protoxide of iron in larger 
quantities. 

We omit describing the processes used for 







THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


*33 


compounding colors with these oxides and 
other chemical combination, their manufact¬ 
ure not being the work of the enamel painter 
or goldsmith, but of the chemist. If, how¬ 
ever, there are those who desire further in¬ 
formation, The Jewelers’ Circular will 
most cheerfully furnish it on application. 

The writer closes with a few remarks con¬ 
cerning the proportions to be observed be¬ 
tween the covering frit and the different 
colors, and these apply specially to these 
colors prepared from gold preparations. 

The gold preparations are distinguished by 
their great affinity for being reduced into 
metallic gold. If in consequence of an in¬ 
correct treatment a gold-containing enamel 
color should be reduced into the metal, the 
enameler will have, in place of the light red 
or dark purple, according to the color, a 
more or less dark brown spot with metallic 
luster, consisting of finely divided gold. It 
is necessary, therefore, to fuse gold prepara¬ 
tions at as low a degree of heat as possible, 
and they must never be applied immediately 
upon a base containing lead or tin, nor must 
they be brought into contact with a covering 
mass containing lead. If, consequently, the 
enameler desires to make the most of his 
gold color, he must coat the white covering 
mass with a covering free from lead, and 
execute the painting with gold color only 
upon this; the latter, as above said, is to be 
fused on only at a very low heat. 

Pigments, such as oxide of cobalt, oxide 
of chromium, and all iron colors, which 
withstand any degree of heat with impunity, 
are very easily treated; the composition of 
both base and covering frit, as well as the 
temperature used for fusing them, has no" in¬ 
fluence on them. Copper pigments are more 
sensitive, and antimony and silver are more 
so, being altered by an unduly strong heat. 
Silver colors also are easily reduced into the 
metal, and in this condition form a gray spot 
with a metallic luster. 

If, therefore, easily reducible preparations 
are to be fused together with the glass 
charges which are to be colored with them, 
it is evident that great care is necessary. 
Gold purple is in small quantities mixed most 
intimately with highly fine pulverized borax 
3 parts, chalk 1 part, and pulverized quartz 
3 parts; the mass is filled into a glazed and 
covered porcelain crucible, which is placed 
into a larger one, equally covered ; these two 
crucibles are used for the sake of keeping out 
the fire gases, and fused at as low a tempera¬ 


ture as possible. The dark red mass is pul¬ 
verized, washed and made of a corresponding 
lighter color by a suitable addition of frit 
of the last mentioned composition (3 quartz 
flour, 3 borax, and 1 chalk). 

For the antimony and silver preparations, 
mixtures are composed of easily fusible lead 
glasses, and the preparations, together with 
one-half their weight of the whole mass of sal- 
ammoniac, and very gradually heated to the 
fusing point. The addition of the sal-am¬ 
moniac is only for the purpose of not rais¬ 
ing the degree of heat too high; when the 
temperature has risen to the point at which 
the sal-ammoniac volatilizes, it remains at the 
point at which the latter evaporates, this salt 
making use of all the heat for volatilizing it. 

The preceding is about the description of 
the process, together with the formula as em¬ 
ployed on the continent, France and Italy. 
We next append that employed in England. 

ENGLISH ENAMELING. 

Enamels are vitreous or glassy substances, 
used by metal workers for producing various 
designs for useful or ornamental purposes. 
Enamels as applied to metals have a trans¬ 
parent colorless base, and when required for 
use, a color is readily given to it by the ad¬ 
dition of metallic oxides, of which the follow¬ 
ing formulae have been selected as the most 
useful: 

Frit No. 1. 

Red lead.10 parts. 

Flint glass.6 parts. 

Saltpeter.2 parts. 

Borax.2 parts. 

CONCLUSION. 

Frit No. 1, in English enameling, is com¬ 
posed of red lead 1 o parts, flint glass 6 parts, 
saltpeter 2 parts, and borax 2 parts. Fuse 
this mixture well in a crucible for some time, 
then pour it out into a jar of water, collect 
the residue, and afterward reduce it to a 
powder in an agate-ware mortar and preserve 
for future use. 

Frit No. 2. 


Metallic tin.8 parts. 

Metallic lead.2 parts. 


Fuse this composition in an iron ladle at a 
dull red heat; carefully remove the oxide 
which will form upon the surface, taking care 
also to obtain it quite free from the pieces of 
metal which have escaped oxidation, and re- 








134 


THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


duce as before to a fine powder. Then take 
of this, calcine 4 parts, silica 8 parts, salt¬ 
peter 2 parts, common salt 2 parts. Well 
mix and partly fuse in a clay crucible; the 
fewer number of times this is fired the firmer 
it will be. 

Frit No. 3. 

Broken crystal goblets ...12 parts. 


Calcined borax.4 parts. 

Glass of antimony.2 parts. 

Saltpeter.1 part. 


Melt this mixture after the manner recom¬ 
mended for No. 1. Break up and again 
melt, as the flux improves by repeated melt¬ 
ing. The above enamel fluxes are admirably 
adapted to form the basis of enamels for gold 
work. They may be made more fusible by 
increasing the proportion of borax; and by 
the latter substance the fusibility of all 
enamels may be increased at pleasure; but 
too free a use of it is an obstacle to the work 
of the artist. 

Frit No. 4. 

Flint glass, powdered ....16 parts. 


Pearl ash.6 parts. 

Common salt.2 parts. 

Calcined borax.1 part. 


Let the ingredients be well melted together, 
and afterward finely broken into powder; 
and preserved ready for the additional color¬ 
ing mixture of enamel. 

Frit No. 5. 


Silicious sand.12 parts. 

Calcined borax.12 parts. 

Glass of antimony.4 parts. 

Saltpeter.1 part. 

Chalk.2 parts. 


Mix and fuse as before explained; grind 
into very fine powder and re-melt; this op¬ 
eration may be judiciously repeated several 
times. 

We have only so far described enamels, 
and given directions for the bases of them; 
variety of design in color is produced by the 
addition of some metallic oxide, which ef¬ 
fects the change according to the kind em¬ 
ployed. These oxides should be used as 
sparingly as possible, because some of them 
will not stand the chemical process of color¬ 
ing or even boiling without a bloom coming 
over them. A good black enamel may be 
made by taking the following ingredients: 


BLACK ENAMEL. 

Frit No. 5.14 parts. 

Peroxide of manganese... 2 parts. 
Fine Saxony cobalt.1 part. 

BLUE ENAMEL. 

Frit No. 4.24 parts. 

Fine Saxony cobalt.5 parts. 

Saltpeter.1 part. 

RED OR CRIMSON ENAMEL. 

Frit No. 3.8 parts. 

Purple of Cassius, or.1 part. 

Red oxide of copper.1 part. 

WHITE ENAMEL. 

Oxide No. 2.1 part. 

Fine crystal.2 parts. 

Peroxide of manganese. .. -^ part. 

GREEN ENAMEL. 

Frit or flux No. 1.36 parts. 

Oxide of copper.2 parts. 

Red oxide of iron.part. 

YELLOW ENAMEL. 

White lead.2 parts. 

White oxide of antimony. . 1 part. 

Sal-ammoniac.1 part. 

Alum.1 part. 


For the last mentioned, pound each of the 
ingredients separately in a mortar and mix 
well together; then carefully submit them to 
a heat sufficient to decompose the sal-am¬ 
moniac (chloride of ammonia); this color can 
be tested in the melting, and will do when 
the yellow is properly brought out. 

Enamel may be made deeper in color by 
a further addition of oxide than that given 
for producing the respective tints. For in¬ 
stance, if a very intense blue is required add 
half a part of zaffre to the other ingredients. 
For black, the same protoxide of iron, zaffre 
or black oxide of copper; but the latter is 
not so good as the others. For red, the red 
oxide of copper may be employed; and in 
yellow, the oxide of lead must be used. For 
green, the protoxide of iron and oxide of 
chromium may be sparingly added to the 
transparent flux. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

Enamels may be prepared and kept ready 
for use by grinding them in an agate mortar, 
and then placing them under water in a 
covered vessel. Or if preferred, they may be 
preserved until required, in the lump, as they 





























THE ART OF ENAMELING. 


1 5 5 


are formed after the crucible operation ; if 
the last-mentioned plan is adopted, then they 
must be broken with a rather sharp-faced 
hammer, and pulverized by means of the 
previously mentioned pestle and mortar. 
When this has been done, they are washed in 
clean water until all extraneous matter has 
entirely disappeared. 

The work which has to receive enamel 
must be specially prepared. This is done in 
the following manner: The pattern desired 
is first drawn on the work by the graver, the 
ground work or part to receive the enamel is 
cut down very evenly, and this helps to 
heighten the effect; in the case of transpar¬ 
ent enamels, the ground work should be ex¬ 
tremely smooth and bright. After the work 
has been well cleaned by washing in a hot 
solution of soda, soap and water, and dried, 
the enamel is applied. In very delicate 
cases the point of a pen is used for this pur¬ 
pose ; in others, a knife or spatula may be 
substituted with advantage ; the work is then 
fired and the enamel is laid on as many times 
as is required. 

When the enamel is sufficiently fused the 
surplus part is rubbed off, the article is rinsed 
and again fired in order to close the pores. 
Great judgment is required with regard to 
this operation, as too long an exposure to 
the heat of the furnaces would completely 
ruin the entire work. Different shades of 
color require different degrees of heat, and a 
knowledge of this can be acquired only by 
continual practice; such knowledge, how¬ 
ever, is of the highest importance, because in 
some of the lower qualities of gold, the fus¬ 
ing point of the enamel is so near that of the 
gold that there is great danger of fusing the 
one along with the other. As we have said 
before, when the workman finds himself beset 
with these difficulties, a small addition of 
borax to the enamel will remove these de¬ 
fects in the operation. 

Opaque colors require a slower and longer 
continued heat than transparent ones, be¬ 
cause the base generally contains lead, tin, or 
antimony. In transparent colors a sharp, 
quick heat is most suitable, which must be 
proportioned to the extent of brilliancy re¬ 
quired. Opaqueness may be given to black 
enamel by heating the work to a dull red 
after it has passed through the usual process 
of cleaning ; the oxide which forms upon the 
surface being black imparts a kind of dark¬ 
ness to the color. 

In the case of transparent enamels, the 


ground work must be clean, smooth, and 
quite bright; the grooved surface being com¬ 
monly run over with a polished, half-round 
scorper, to make the effect more intense and 
beautiful, the latter quality depending to a 
considerable extent upon this being properly 
performed. 

By varying the alloys of gold, a great alter¬ 
ation may be made in the brilliancy of 
enamel; for example, in transparent yellow 
and green, the alloy of gold should be rather 
pale ; in the case of red, the reverse should 
be the case. 

The vertical lapidary’s wheel is now much 
used by the artificer for the purpose of re¬ 
moving the surplus enamel; and by the ap¬ 
plication of wet emery it is rendered clear 
and smooth ; this is much quicker and better 
than the old method. It is finished upon the 
buff by an application of putty-powder (oxide 
of tin), as it is both smoother and cuts faster 
than most other polishing mixtures. In 
England enameling is a separate and distinct 
craft, and is altogether an art in itself ; it has 
never been found to answer well where tried 
by ordinary manufacturing goldsmiths, the 
designs and colors having in their hands too 
much of sameness when compared with those 
produced by the professional enameler. The 
enameler, to take high rank in the order, must 
have some knowledge of designing, engrav¬ 
ing, and chemistry ; he must likewise under¬ 
stand the alloys of gold and their points of 
fusion, and the effects of coloring the work ; 
he must also be tolerably conversant with the 
nature of the workmanship that is continually 
coming under his charge ; and all this knowl¬ 
edge may be considered quite sufficient to 
raise the art to a distinct branch of study 
and practice. 

In closing our remarks on the preparation 
of enamels, colors, and fluxes, and their 
mode of application to gold alloys, we de¬ 
sire to say that the rules or directions here 
given have been selected from very high 
authorities in the trade, and we trust they 
will be found equally serviceable to those 
desirous of gaining information concerning 
enamels and the art of enameling. The ex¬ 
act work cannot well be described, and thor¬ 
ough success is to be achieved only by the 
exercise of good taste, and by long-continued 
practice and attention to the craft. 

Where diamonds and other precious stones 
are employed as well as enamels, work 
pertaining to the latter is performed first. 
Engraving, chasing, coloring, and lapping 


i 3 6 


FUSING GOLD DUST. 


are subsequent processes of the goldsmiths’ 
art. 


TO RESTORE LUSTER OF GOLD 
ARTICLES. 

IGH quality gold articles, when their 
color has deteriorated, can be restored 
to their primitive beauty by the application 
of the following mixture. It is thus com¬ 
posed : 

Sesquioxide of iron. 3 oz. 

Calcined borax. 2 “ 

Chloride of ammonia. 1 “ 

Water to form paste. 2 “ . 

Well mix the powdered ingredients to¬ 
gether until a thick and even paste has been 
formed, then take the work and either dip it 
into the mixture or otherwise brush it over 
with it, care being taken to see that it is well 
covered with the color. The articles to be 
brightened are then taken and placed upon a 
copper pan, and heated over a clear fire, un¬ 
til all hissing sound has ceased and the ar¬ 
ticles have received a moderate amount of 
heat, when they are withdrawn, placed aside 
to cool, and afterward boiled out in weak 
muriatic acid to dissolve the coloring salts 
adhering to the surface. Well rinsing, 
scratching, and drying completes the pro¬ 
cess. This produces a fine and high color 
to rich gold, if the alloy is of a deep hue. 
It may also be used f£>r restoring the color 
to repaired places of gold chains, which have 
had to be mended after the color has been 
given to them, and when it is not safe or 
economical to put them through the acid 
process again. After the soldering has been 
completed take a little of the above compo¬ 
sition, prepared as stated, and apply it to the 
soldered parts, then heat the parts only very 
gently with the gas jet by means of the 
mouth blow-pipe, allow to cool; next dis¬ 
solve the adhering flux by the means before 
stated, slightly scratch-brush the places re¬ 
colored, rinse, and dry, after which the even¬ 
ness of surface will be completely restored. 

Another mixture that may be used in the 
same manner, consists of the following in¬ 
gredients : 

ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Sesquioxide of iron. 3 oz. 

Acetate of copper. 3 “ 

Calcined borax. 1 “ 

Water to form paste. 2 “ 

The acetate of copper should be well dried 


before using it, to free it from the vinegar, 
or it will probably corrode the work. In 
this recipe the sesquioxide of iron should be 
the red, whereas in the other it may be the 
yellow. The treatment is exactly the same 
as that in the one above described. 


CASTING. 

HE goldsmith or watchmaker often has 
the occasion to make a casting, which 
is easily effected in the following manner: 
Make a model of the article desired out of 
lead or wood, but a trifle larger than neces¬ 
sary, as the casting will lose somewhat in 
shrinking and hammering ; take two pieces of 
cuttlefish, and fit them smoothly together; 
then place the model between them, gently 
press equally on both, whereby you will re¬ 
ceive a good imprint of the model, and to 
prevent a possible displacement, fasten them 
with three or four pins. Take them apart, 
carefully remove the model, make a funnel- 
shaped cut-in for casting, and bind them 
together with wire. Put the brass into a cru¬ 
cible, strew borax over it, and if you are 
skillful, you will obtain a nice casting. 


GILDING WITHOUT A BATTERY. 

BJECTS which are not exposed to 
much handling may in a short time be 
gilt in the following manner without employ¬ 
ing the electrical pile. In boiling distilled 
water, dissolve one part of chloride of gold 
and four parts of cyanide of potassium. The 
objects will in a short time be covered by a 
handsome gold film, by leaving them in the 
still hot bath for a few minutes, and by hav¬ 
ing them attached by a fine copper wire se¬ 
cured to a strip of clean zinc. 


FUSING GOLD DUST. 

SE such a crucible as is generally used 
for melting brass; heat very hot, then 
add your gold dust mixed with powdered 
borax. After a while a scum or slag will rise 
to the surface, which may be thickened by 
the addition of a little lime or bone ash. If 
the dust contains any of the more oxidizable 
metals, add a little saltpeter, skim off the slag 
or scum very carefully ; when melted, grasp 
the crucible with strong iron tongs, and pour 
immediately into cast-iron molds slightly 
greased. The slag and crucible may be after¬ 
ward pulverized, and the auriferous matter 


















TO MAKE GOLD AMALGAM. 


*37 


recovered from the mass by cupellating by 
means of lead. 


TO KNOW PURE GILDING. 

SOLUTION of chloride of copper will 
show the difference between gilding 
for which gold has been used and gilding 
with alloys of inferior metals. If- the gilding 
is imitation gold, a touch of the solution gives 
a black mark, copper separating out through 
the zinc in the yellow metal; with pure metal 
no discoloration occurs. The test can also 
be effected with a solution of chloride of gold 
or nitrate of silver, the first of which gives a 
brown spot, the second a gray or black spot, 
neither, of course, having any effect on gold. 
Common gold goods of 14-karat gold do not 
change their color with nitrate of silver. 
Leaf gold is tested by being shaken up in 
a stoppered bottle with sulphur chloride. 
Beaten gold shows no alteration, while 
“ metal ” leaves grow gradually black. 


TO MAKE CHLORIDE OF GOLD. 

AKE five pennyweights of fine gold, and 
after rolling out to a thin plate, cut it 
into small strips or pellets. Get an olive 
flask and clean it well with a warm and satu¬ 
rated solution of soda and water. Half fill 
the flask with water, and set on a sand bath 
over a heat that will slowly bring the water 
to boiling, which will both temper and test 
the flask; if it stands this test, it is fit to be 
used. Put the gold pellets into the flask, 
then mix in a small bottle half an ounce of 
pure nitric acid and two ounces of muriatic 
acid, and pour some of this into the flask to 
cover the pieces of gold; place it on a sand 
bath over a gentle heat, and put over the 
mouth of the flask a small piece of glass to 
prevent the solution from spurting out, while 
in action. As soon as the acid ceases to act 
on the gold, and if any remains undissolved, 
add a little of the mixed acid, and continue 
to add little at a time as often as it stops act¬ 
ing on the gold until all is dissolved ; remove 
then the flask from the sand bath and let it 
cool, after which pour in it about the like 
quantity of water, and boil over a heated 
sand bath until about half of it is evaporated ; 
remove and pour the solution into a glass or 
porcelain dish, and rinse the flask several 
times with small quantities of warm water, 
which add to the solution. 


NEW INGOT MOLDS. 

EW ingot molds to prevent the gold 
adhering to them, should be well 
greased before using. It is much better to 
close them and pour in a solution of salt and 
water, letting them remain so for a day or 
two before using them; this causes oxida¬ 
tion, or rust, of the surfaces, and is an excel¬ 
lent preventive to the gold sticking, which 
is sometimes found to be so obstinate as to 
cause chipping of the mold, thus rendering 
it thereafter useless. 


HOW TO DISTINGUISH REAL GOLD. 

TINY drop of mercury rubbed on some 
corner of the surface to be examined 
will produce a white, silvery spot if the gold 
is pure or if there is gold in the alloy. If this 
silvery spot does not appear, there is no gold 
in the surface exposed. To prove the cor¬ 
rectness of this result, a drop of the solution 
of nitrate of mercury can be dropped on the 
surface, when a white spot will appear if the 
gold is counterfeit, while the surface will re¬ 
main unaltered if the gold is genuine. After 
the operation, heating the article slightly will 
volatilize the mercury and the spots will dis¬ 
appear. 


WHITE COLOR AFTER PICKLING. 

HE white color after pickling may be 
due either to heating the article too 
much or too long, or to keeping it too long 
in the pickle. In the former case, the alloy 
or copper is oxidized deeply into the article, 
and when removed by the pickle it leaves 
only the silver on the surface. In the latter 
case, keeping the article too long in the 
pickle has the same effect, by eating away 
the copper too deeply. The color may be 
restored by scouring and polishing till the sil¬ 
ver coating is removed and the solid metal 
is brought to the surface. Then, if the nat¬ 
ural color of the gold is too light, it must be 
colored either by plating with gold, or by the 
coloring process. 


TO MAKE GOLD AMALGAM. 

IGHT parts of gold and one of mercury 
are formed into an amalgam for plating, 
by rolling the gold into thin plates, heating it 
red hot and then putting it into the mercury, 
while this is also heated to ebullition. The 
gold immediately disappears in combination 













U 8 


FROSTING AND COLORING GOLD. 


with the mercury, after which the mixture 
may be turned into water to cool. It is then 
ready for use. _ 

GOLD FRICTION POWDER. 

HE following is an advice given by an 
expert: I use a gold friction powder, 
which I find very handy in removing or 
covering over spots on gold or plated articles 
where the plate is worn off, and where I do 
not care to dip the articles in a solution. I 
dissolve twenty-four grains of fine gold (coin) 
in one-half ounce of nitro-muriatic acid, and 
then absorb the acid with a clean blotting 
paper. When the paper is thoroughly dry I 
burn it and pulverize the ashes, which I rub 
on the bare spots with chamois skin moistened 
with water. The spots should first be well 
cleaned, the same as for plating with a bat¬ 
tery, to resist the deposition of gold upon 
them. _ 

TO REMOVE TIN FROM THE STOCK. 

UST previous to pouring the gold, 
throw a small piece of corrosive sub¬ 
limate into the pot, stir well with a long 
piece of pointed charcoal, and allow the pot 
to remain on the fire for about half a minute 
afterward. This will take tin from the alloy ; 
gold containing tin will not roll without 
cracking. To remove emery or steel filings 
from gold, add a small piece of glass-gall 
while melting; it will collect them in the 
flux. _ 

TO SEPARATE GOLD FROM SILVER. 

HE alloy is to be melted and poured 
from a height into a vessel of cold 
water, to which a rotary motion is imparted. 
By this means the alloy is reduced to a finely 
granulated condition. The metallic substance 
is then treated with nitric acid, and gently 
heated. Nitrate of silver is produced, which 
can be reduced by any of the known meth¬ 
ods, while metallic gold remains as a black 
mud, which must be washed and smelted. 


TO POLISH GOLD ARTICLES. 

IGHTEEN karat articles and upwards 
from bright a//oys, will present a bright, 
mirror-like appearance by well polishing all 
over, inside and out, with pumice and emery, 
then with oil and rotten-stone, and finally 
finishing upon the buff with a little rouge of 
the best quality, and a touch or two of 
grease. Work high in quality finished in 


this manner, requires no gilding or coloring 
to put a superior surface to it; and when it 
is well washed out with soap in a hot solution 
of potash or soda it looks very beautiful and 
rich. The bright alloy for 18 karats is com¬ 
posed as follows: Gold, fine, 15 dwts. 3 
grains; silver, 2 dwts. 21 grains; copper 
wire, 3 dwts. Add 2 grains of copper per 
ounce for loss in melting. The two grains 
of copper added for melting loss will be 
found to be an advantage, since it keeps the 
alloy more uniform as to its original weight, 
and the cost per ounce is more certain and 
regular. _ 

FROSTING AND COLORING GOLD. 

OR 15- to 18-karat gold the work should 
be well polished, first with glass paper, 
then with crocus and oil used on a circular 
brush revolving on a lathe spindle. Wash 
out clean with soap and hot water with soda, 
and dry in hot boxwood sawdust. Take 2 
parts saltpeter, 1 part alum, 1 part common 
salt; reduce them all to powder, place them 
in a rather large crucible or a proper color- 
pot of plumbago and set over a gas jet; add 
a very little water to moisten and allow the 
whole to dissolve, stirring occasionally to pre¬ 
vent burning. While this is dissolving, set a 
kettleful of water on the fire to boil. Take 
the gold articles out of the sawdust; dust 
away any particle of the latter and anneal 
the articles, attaching each one separately to 
a silver wire (which may be thin), and twist 
all the articles up into a bundle and tie the 
ends of wires on to a stick of cane or fire¬ 
wood, allowing the goods to be colored to 
be spread out slightly. By this time the in¬ 
gredients will have boiled up into a froth. 
You must so arrange that this effect is pro¬ 
duced, regulating the heat to produce that 
effect by the time you are ready. 

Now, dip the bunch of goods into the 
color-pot, thoroughly immersing them, and 
keep them moving gently for five minutes; 
then withdraw and pour boiling water from 
the kettle over them to rinse, holding them 
at the same time over a pipkin to catch the 
rinsing. 

Now, pour about 1 ounce of boiling water 
in the color-pot, allow that to froth up, dip 
the bunch again, move about for four min¬ 
utes and rinse as before; add 2 ounces of 
water, dip again for three minutes and rinse ; 
add now 3 ounces of water, let it froth up, 
dip for two minutes and rinse ; add 4 ounces 
of water and rinse as before ; then 5 ounces of 












TO RECOVER THE GOLD LOST IN COLORING. 


139 


water, re-dip for one minute and rinse for the 
last time. 

The operation of coloring is now complete. 
Remove the goods from the wires, and boil 
them in a pickle of nitric acid and water for 
a few minutes and afterwards in plain water, 
throwing away the water when it boils and 
replacing it with cold. The goods are now 
ready for frosting. 

Have a very fine scratch-brush mounted 
on the lathe, with an arrangement for drop¬ 
ping size water on the front or top of the 
brush; set the lathe going and hold the ar¬ 
ticle so that the ends of the wires of the 
brush just touch it; drive it fast and turn all 
parts of the work to the action of the revolv¬ 
ing brush. _ 

TO CAST IN FISH-BONE. 

EINRICH SCHULTZE says in Die 
Goldschmiedekunst that the manner of 
casting in fish-bone has been explained re¬ 
peatedly in that and other technical journals. 
It will, however, have happened occasionally 
that the cast has not turned out well, a cir¬ 
cumstance readily induced partly by the way 
of pouring and again by the condition of the 
mold. Brass foil is sometimes recommended 
for producing a compact cast; indeed, it is 
very good, but the copper percentage of the 
alloy is increased unnecessarily, since the zinc 
only influences the compactness of the ingot. 
For about 80 parts 14-karat gold, or 50 to 
60 parts 18-karat gold—the same proportions 
hold good for silver—1 part good pure zinc 
sheet rolled together, dipped in sal-ammoniac 
water or soldering fluid, heated and immersed 
into the clear molten metal, does the same 
services, and does not alter the nature of the 
alloy as it evaporates again. 

A bad cast is caused both by pouring when 
too cold or too hot, as well as by a bad mold. 
After the mold has been made ready and 
provided with air ducts and hole for casting, 
and when ready to be laid together, take a 
camel’s-hair brush and coat everything with 
a concentrated solution of borax or boracic 
acid ; after the lapse of a few minutes, when 
the surface has become fairly dry, repeat the 
coating, this time, however, taking a concen¬ 
trated solution of water gloss, either diluted 
one-half with water or borax solution ; do it 
as carefully as possible, so that no small lump 
remains adhering anywhere, or in order not 
to injure the sharp corners; then dry over a 
small lamp, place together and lay the mold 
where it is warm. If wood cores are to be 


laid in, they are each separately laid into the 
water-gloss solution, and after drying, are 
placed into the mold. 

It may perhaps not be known to every¬ 
body how it is possible to cast holes in a cer¬ 
tain object; for instance, the bezel hole of a 
ring. The pattern for it is fully finished, and 
the more perfectly it is smoothed and bur¬ 
nished the nicer will be the cast. When the 
corresponding holes have been cut in, fit into 
it a wooden mold of the requisite shape— 
round, square, oval—but in such a manner 
that it projects a few millimeters so that the 
plug, ^>ter the ring or model has been re¬ 
moved, may again be laid exactly into the 
imprinted place; these projecting parts are 
then slightly rounded off in order to be in¬ 
serted and withdrawn readily. Now bind 
the mold together and carefully close the 
casting hole with silk paper; drive also some 
of it between the sides in case they should 
stand together with only little hold; then 
place the model obliquely into a small vessel 
filled with fine sand, so that the former is 
filled nearly as far as the opening. The sand 
may also be heated previously, or else the 
vessel may be heated afterward to a degree 
borne by the fish-bone, both for the purpose 
of drying them and expelling the air as much 
as possible. When the metal is clear and 
ready for coating and the operator is certain 
that the mold is thoroughly dry, pour. Ex¬ 
perience makes the expert, and experience is 
necessary to know the right time when to 
pour. If the metal is too cold the cast is 
faulty; if too hot, it becomes blistery; it 
may also occur that the cast looks to be 
nice and smooth, but when worked places 
cave in caused by holes and blisters within. 
Therefore, remember: first, a good heat, 
next, have the crucible closely before the 
mold, and as soon as the brightness of the 
molten metal disappears and a film is about 
to form on it, cast quickly, and my word for 
it you will cast with as much success in fish¬ 
bone as you will in sand. The placing of 
the mold in sand is for the purpose of pre¬ 
venting the running through of the metal. 


TO RECOVER THE GOLD LOST IN 
COLORING. 

ISSOLVE a handful of sulphate of iron 
in boiling water, then add this to your 
“ color ” fluid, and it will precipitate the 
small particles of gold. Now draw off the 
fluid, being very careful not to disturb the 






140 


CYANIDE OF GOLD. 


auriferous sediment at the bottom. Then 
proceed to wash the sediment from all trace 
of acid with plenty of boiling water; it will 
require three or four separate washings, with 
sufficient time between each to allow the 
water to cool and the sediment to settle, be¬ 
fore pouring off the water. Then dry in an 
iron vessel by the fire, and finally fuse. 


RECOVERY OF GOLD FROM SOLU¬ 
TION. 

A N easy method to recover gold from 
solutions, particularly from old toning- 
baths of photographers, has been made 
known by Fr. Haugk. It consists in filtering 
the solution into a white glass flask, or bottle, 
making it alkaline with sodium carbonate, 
and then adding, drop by drop, a concen¬ 
trated alcoholic solution of aniline red (fuch- 
sine), until the liquor is of a deep strawberry 
color. The flask is then exposed to the sun¬ 
light for six or eight hours, at the end of 
which all the gold still present will have been 
precipitated as a dark violet color, and the 
liquor will have become colorless. After 
pouring off the liquor the flask with the pre¬ 
cipitate is kept until a fresh quantity of solu¬ 
tion has to.be precipitated, and this is con¬ 
tinued until the deposit in the flask is suffi¬ 
ciently large to make it worth while to re¬ 
move it. It is then transferred to a filter, 
washed, dried, and burned with the filter. 
The residue, containing the filter-ash, is dis¬ 
solved at a gentle heat in aqua regia, filtered, 
and the solution evaporated to dryness. The 
quantity of impurity caused by the simul¬ 
taneous solution of the filter-ash is too insig¬ 
nificant to be objected to. 


TO CLEANSE GOLD TARNISHED IN 
SOLDERING. 

HE old English mode was to expose 
all parts of the article to a uniform 
heat, allow it to cool, and boil until bright in 
urine and sal-ammoniac. It is now usually 
cleaned in dilute sulphuric acid. The pickle 
is made in about the proportion of one-eighth 
of an ounce of acid to one ounce of rain 
water. 


FACETIOUS GOLD. 

T is averred that the following recipes 
will produce alloys of metals so nearly 
resembling genuine gold as to almost baffle 
goldsmiths without a resort to thorough tests. 


Fuse together with saltpeter, sal-ammoniac, 
and powdered charcoal, 4 parts platinum, 
2^4 parts pure copper, 1 part pure zinc, 2 
parts block tin, and 1 y 2 parts pure lead. 
Another good recipe calls for 2 parts plati¬ 
num, 1 part silver, and 3 parts copper. 


TO COLOR SOFT SOLDER. 

HE following is a method for coloring 
soft solder so that when it is used for 
uniting brass the colors may be about the 
same: First prepare a saturated solution of 
sulphate of copper—blue stone—in water, 
and apply some of this on the end of a stick 
to the solder. On touching it then with an 
iron or steel wire it becomes coppered, and 
by repeating the experiment the deposit of 
copper may be made thicker and darker. 
To give the solder a yellow color, mix one 
part of a saturated solution of sulphate of 
zinc with two of sulphate of copper; apply 
this to the coppered spot and rub it with a 
zinc rod. The color can be still further im¬ 
proved by applying gilt powder and polish¬ 
ing. On gold jewelry or colored gold the 
solder is first coppered as above, then a thin 
coat of gum or isinglass solution is laid on 
and bronze powder dusted over it, making a 
surface which can be polished smooth and 
brilliant after the gum is dry. 


CYANIDE OF GOLD. 

YANIDE of gold is formed by cau¬ 
tiously adding a solution of cyanide of 
potassium in six parts of water, to a neutral 
solution (that is to say, not containing any 
free acid) of terchloride of gold, as long as 
a yellow precipitate settles down; if more 
cyanide of potassium is added, the precipi¬ 
tate becomes dirty yellow, and is more 
quickly deposited; a still larger quantity 
renders it orange-yellow, and re-dissolves it. 
It is a crystalline powder, permanent in the 
air; by ignition, it is resolved into gold and 
cyanogen gas ; it is not decomposed by sul¬ 
phuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid, or by 
aqua regia, unless freshly precipitated, and 
then only slowly. It is not decomposed by 
sulphuretted hydrogen; hydrosulphate of 
ammonia dissolves it slowly but completely, 
forming a colorless solution, from which, by 
the addition of acid, sulphide of gold is pre¬ 
cipitated. It dissolves in aqueous solution 
of ammonia, hydrosulphite of soda or alkaline 
of cyanides, but not in water, alcohol, or ether. 










ACCIDENTS IN POURING. 


141 


RECOVERING GOLD FROM COLORING 
BATH. 

ISSOLVE a handful of sulphate of iron 
in boiling water, and add it to your 
“ color ” water; it precipitates the small 
particles of gold. Now draw off the water, 
being very careful not to disturb the aurifer¬ 
ous sediment at the bottom. You will now 
proceed to wash the sediment from all trace 
of acid with plenty of boiling water; it will 
require three or four separate washings, with 
sufficient time between each to allow the 
water to cool and the sediment to settle, be¬ 
fore passing off the water. Then dry in an 
iron vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a 
covered skittle pot with a flux. 


TO MAKE GOLD TO ROLL WELL. 

O cause gold to roll well, melt with a 
good heat, add a tablespoonful of sal- 
ammoniac and charcoal, equal quantities, 
both pulverized, stir up well, put on the 
cover for two minutes, and pour. 


MELTING AND REFINING. 

N melting brass gold urge the fire to a 
great heat and stir the metal with the 
long stem of a tobacco pipe, to prevent 
honey-combing. If steel or iron filings get 
into gold while melting, throw in a piece of 
sandiver the size of a common nut; it will 
attract the iron or steel from the gold into 
the flux, or, sublimate of mercury will destroy 
the iron or steel. _ 

TO RECOVER GOLD FROM GILT 
METAL. 

AKE a solution of borax water, apply to 
the gilt surface, and sprinkle over it some 
finely powdered sulphur; make the article 
red hot and quench it in water; then scrape 
off the gold and recover it by means of lead. 


TO REMOVE GOLD. 

OLD is taken from silver by spreading 
over it a paste composed of pulverized 
sal-ammoniac with aqua fortis, and heating it 
till the matter smokes and is nearly dry, 
when the gold may be separated by rubbing 
with a scratch-brush. 


CLEANSING MAT GOLD. 

AKE 80 grams chloride of lime, 80 gr. of 
bicarbonate of soda, and 20 gr. table 
salt; pour over this about 3 liters distilled 


water, and fill in bottles, to be kept well 
corked. For use, lay the dirty articles into 
a dish, pour over the well shaken fluid, let 
it submerge them, leave them in it for a short 
time, and in extra cases when very dirty warm 
them a little. Next wash the articles, rinse 
them in alcohol, dry them in sawdust, and 
they will appear like new. The fluid is of 
no further use. 


PURE GOLD. 

HE Journal de Pharmacie specifies the 
following method for preparing pure 
gold: Commercial gold is dissolved in a 
mixture of 4 parts hydrochloric and 1 part 
nitric acid, of 20 0 B.; the obtained white- 
colored pasty chloride of silver is filtered off, 
and the filtrate is mixed with an aqueous solu¬ 
tion of antimony chloruret, to which so much 
hydrochloric acid has been added, that no 
turbidity is produced at the mixing of the 
solution. The reduction is effected in a few 
hours, especially if a little heat is used. 
The gold is filtered off, washed with dilute 
hydrochloric acid, next with water, and fused 
with a little saltpeter and borax. The mother 
liquors, which contain antimony chloride, can, 
boiling with metallic antimony, be again re¬ 
duced to antimony chloruret and again used. 


ACCIDENTS IN POURING. 

OST jewelers, at some time or other of 
their experience, may have met with 
accidents in the melting and pouring of their 
alloys, such, for instance, a pot cracking, the 
spilling or the upsetting of a portion of the 
metal from the crucible into the fire. The 
following mode of recovery of lost metal we 
have found the best and most practical in 
the workshop, with the ordinary appliances 
usually at the command of jewelers and gold 
workers. Collect the whole of the burnt 
coke, ashes, and other refuse used in the 
smelting operation and, first of all, well wash 
it several times with water, to remove the 
dust and other extraneous matter; the sedi¬ 
ment left behind is then well dried and 
pounded as fine as possible in a cast-iron 
mortar; it is afterwards put through a sieve 
as fine as is convenient to prevent the small 
particles of gold from going through the 
meshes with the powdered dust. The gold 
is now picked at this stage from the refuse 
in a sieve ; and if there be any solid particles 
of refuse still unpounded, it is put through 
the process again. It is very seldom that. 
















142 


PREPARATION OF GOLD SALTS. 


the whole of the gold can be collected when 
once split into the fire, but the larger portion 
of it can be recovered by these means. The 
remainder goes into the scraps to be treated 
by the refiner. _ 

JEWELERS’ PICKLE. 

HE usual jewelers’ pickle is made of 5 
parts of water to 1 of sulphuric acid. 
When something is wanted that will “ take 
hold ” more than this, a little muriatic or 
nitric acid is added to it. For Roman col¬ 
ored goods, especially, muriatic acid is added. 
If the jeweler has trouble with a gold article, 
and it looks green or white after being in the 
above sulphuric acid pickle, make a pickle of 
strong sulphuric acid and saltpeter, equal 
parts, heat it boiling hot, hang the article on 
a hook made of copper wife and dip in the 
boiling liquid, then wash. If the color is not 
good, repeat. _ 

COLORING TIN SOLDER YELLOW. 

CCORDING to the Metal Arbelter, pre¬ 
pare a saturated solution of sulphate 
of copper in water; into it dip a pegwood 
and with this touch the soldered place. 
Then take an iron or steel wire, and with it 
touch the same place, whereby it will be¬ 
come coppered at once. The precipitate 
will be increased by repeating the operation. 
For coloring the place of soldering yellow, 
prepare a saturated mixed solution of one 
part of sulphate of zinc and two parts sul¬ 
phate of copper; with this touch the cop¬ 
pered place, and then touch with a zinc rod, 
whereby a precipitate of brass is produced; 
in order to improve the color, the place may 
be rubbed with gilding powder and burnished 
with a steel. On gilt or colored gold articles, 
the coppered soldering place is furnished 
with a thin coating of mucilage or isinglass 
solution, over which bronze powder is strewn 
which can be brushed nice and smooth after 
the mucilage solution is dry; or else the 
article may be galvanically gilt again, whereby 
a uniform color is produced. The coppered 
place is, on silverware, rubbed or brushed 
with silvering powder; it may then be care¬ 
fully scratched and polished. 


PREPARATION OF GOLD SALTS. 

ERCHLORIDE of gold is formed by 
dissolving metallic gold in a warm 
mixture of one measure of nitric acid, and 
from two to three measures of hydrochloric 


acid ; the mixture is called aqua regia. The 
gold dissolves slowly with evolution of gas. 
When it is all dissolved, evaporate the solu¬ 
tion by gentle heat, with stirring, until it is 
reduced to a small bulk and solidifies on 
cooling. The residue should be entirely 
soluble in water. If it contains a white sub¬ 
stance which will not dissolve, it is chloride 
of silver, derived from traces of silver in the 
metal. If there is a small amount of yellow 
or brown residue, one of the salts has been 
overheated. Such residue should be redis¬ 
solved in a little aqua regia and evaporated 
to dryness again. One ounce of gold, if it 
is in small fragments or thin sheets, will re¬ 
quire about four ounces of aqua regia to dis¬ 
solve it. Chloride of gold is a yellow salt, 
and dissolves in one and a half its weight of 
water. If it is properly made, it contains 
one atomic weight (196.6 parts) of gold and 
three atomic weights (106.5 parts) of chlo¬ 
ride, and its composition is represented by 
the formula AuCE. One troy ounce of 
gold will make one ounce 164J4 grains of 
the chloride. 

Oxide of gold is obtained by digesting a 
solution of the chloride with an excess of 
calcined magnesia, washing the precipitate 
first with dilute nitric acid, and then with 
water only. If caustic potash or soda be 
used instead of magnesia, the oxide is liable 
to contain some of the alkali. 

The terbromide of gold may be formed by 
digesting oxide of gold in hydrobromic acid, 
and evaporating the solution by gentle heat, 
stirring until it solidifies on cooling. 

The oxide of gold forms, on addition of 
aqueous ammonia or of solutions of carbon¬ 
ate sulphate, or chloride of ammonia, a dark 
olive-brown substance, called fulminate of 
gold, aurate of ammonia, or ammoniuret of 
gold. The same substance is also formed 
on adding ammonia or a solution of a salt of 
ammonia to a solution of terchloride of gold. 
It is an extremely dangerous substance when 
dry, and detonates with the least friction or 
percussion. To form ammoniuret of gold, 
which is sometimes used in electro-gilding 
baths, convert ten parts by weight of gold 
into the solid chloride. Dissolve that salt in 
water and add to the solution fifty parts, by 
weight, of the strongest aqueous ammonia 
and stir the mixture ; an abundant precipitate 
of the ammoniuret, otherwise called fulminate 
of gold, is produced in the form of a yellow¬ 
ish-brown powder. When it has subsided, 
pour .off the supernatant liquid and fill up 








WHITE METAL ALLOYS. 


*4 3 


again with water, and repeat this several 
times, until the precipitate no longer smells 
of ammonia. The water contains a little 
gold, and is reserved for recovery of that 
metal. As the yellow-brown precipitate, 
when in a dry state, is highly explosive, it 
should never be allowed to get dry, and 
ought not to be prepared until the time of 
forming a gilding solution with it. Particles 
of it should not be allowed to dry upon the 
edges of the vessels nor upon filters through 
which the wash-liquids have been passed. 
To remove the solid salt from articles we 
may dissolve it in a solution of cyanide of 
potassium. Freshly precipitated wet oxide 
of gold dissolves in a solution of caustic pot¬ 
ash, to form aurate of potassium; the solu¬ 
tion is yellow, and may be used for electro¬ 
gilding. 

Sulphide of gold is obtained by passing a 
current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas through 
a solution of chloride of gold, as long as a 
precipitate occurs; it is a blackish, brown 
powder. _ 

WHY GOLD IN JEWELRY CHANGES 
COLOR. 

I T is well known that the human body 
contains humors and acids, similar in 
action to and having a like tendency toward 
baser metals, as nitric and sulphuric acids 
have, namely, to tarnish or dissolve them, 
varying in quality in different persons. 
Thousands wear continually, without any ill 
effects, the cheaper class of jewelry, with 
brass ear-wires, while if others wore the same 
article for a few days they would be troubled 
with sore ears, or, in other words, the acids 
contained in the system would so act on the 
brass as to produce ill results. Instances 
have occurred in which articles of jewelry of 
any grade below 18 karats have been tar¬ 
nished in a few days, merely from the above- 
named cause. True, these instances are not 
very frequent; nevertheless, it is as well to 
know them. Every case is not the fault of 
the goods not wearing well, as it is generally 
called, but the result of the particular consti¬ 
tution of the wearer. 


WHITE METAL ALLOYS. 

A S so much depends in plating on the 
. quality of the metal on which the outer 
stratum is deposited, both with respect to the 
appearance of the goods when new and their 
durability in use, the importance of its homo¬ 
geneity can hardly be over-estimated. 


A good deal of misapprehension seems to 
exist as to the meaning of the term “ nickel,” 
which is commonly applied (even by those 
who are well aware of the misnomer) indis¬ 
criminately to all kinds of white metal alloys. 
The principal alloy of nickel is German silver, 
a triple compound or admixture of nickel, cop¬ 
per, and zinc; although another alloy, com¬ 
posed of nickel and copper only, is also in 
use, chiefly for purposes of foreign coinage, 
which, however, does not call for special at¬ 
tention here. An instructive article dealing 
with the above subject appears in a recent 
issue of a contemporary, an abstract of the 
principal part of which will be of interest to 
our readers: 

The casting of German silver is, in many 
respects, similar to the same operation with 
brass ; but there are certain important differ¬ 
ences. It is found impossible in practice to 
make German silver by one melting in the 
pot, the high and sustained temperature nec¬ 
essary to bring about liquefaction of nickel 
causing excessive loss of the low melting and 
volatile zinc (spelter). For this reason the 
nickel is always alloyed in one operation 
with a portion of the copper, and the zinc 
and the remainder of the copper, in the 
form of brass, are added in a separate melting. 
It is the invariable rule of English casting 
shops to make one-and-one “ mixing ” and 
one-and-one brass; “ mixing,” it may be ex¬ 
plained, is the name given to the alloy of 
copper and nickel. This alloy is made in 
8o-lb. plumbago crucibles heated in a wind 
furnace, similar to the square section furnaces 
employed by brass casters, and fed by the 
best hard coke. It is necessary to use a 
good coke, since nickel alloys are much de¬ 
teriorated by contamination with sulphur. 
About an hour is required from putting in 
the pot to pouring the metal, and the tem¬ 
perature must be very high. To diminish 
oxidation, and also to refine the ingredients, 
more particularly the nickel, borax is always 
added as a flux. This substance, though pos¬ 
sessing many of the properties of an alkali 
when in aqueous solutions, has powerful acid 
properties at temperatures beyond redness. 
The boracic acid it contains is, like silicic, 
a feeble acid ; but being, like the latter acid, 
fixed in the fire, it manifests important prop¬ 
erties at these higher ranges of temperature, 
and borax, chemically speaking, contains a 
more than normal quantity of this acid. It 
will, therefore, be understood how the flux, by 
inducing a kind of scorifying action, brings 




144 


WHITE METAL ALLOYS. 


about a partial refining of the contents of the 
pot. Mixing is run into pigs of a few pounds 
weight, and each of these should, when cold, 
present an upper surface somewhat concave 
and covered with transverse wrinkles. If 
the metal shows a smooth and bloated con¬ 
vex surface, the presence of impurities, and 
more particularly of sulphur, may be inferred. 
The casting of the brass for German silver 
making differs in no important respect from 
the ordinary manufacture of the same alloy 
for sand caster’s use. The actual making of 
German silver begins when the mixing and 
the brass have been obtained. For pig 
metal, that is, German silver intended for re¬ 
melting and casting in sand molds, it is 
sufficient to mix together the ingredients, 
fuse under a layer of charcoal, and pour into 
pig molds; sometimes a little tin is added, 
to give increased whiteness and hardness. 
It is in the casting of strips for the rolling- 
mill that the special skill of the German sil¬ 
ver maker comes in. Many a good brass 
caster has tried his hand at German silver 
strip casting and failed, although, to a super¬ 
ficial observer, the two operations are identi¬ 
cal. Both alloys, when required in the form 
of sheets or wire, are cast into strips, or, in 
the case of wire, into rods, and these are then 
reduced to the finished form by mere me¬ 
chanical manipulations. But a German sil¬ 
ver strip, or wire rod, treated exactly as a 
brass one, would, in ninety-nine cases out of 
a hundred, result in a sheet or wire, good, 
perhaps, at one end, but unsound through 
half of its dimensions. The reason is to be 
found in the greater shrinkage of the nickel 
alloy during solidification, and the remedy 
for this is in the careful “ feeding ” of the 
ingot during cooling. To compound Ger¬ 
man silver, of whatever quality, certain 
weights of mixing and of brass, together with 
a smaller quantity of copper, are necessary; 
and to allow for loss of zinc by volatilization 
during the melting, about 2 lbs. of spelter 
per heat for low qualities, and 1 *4 lbs. for 
the better qualities, are allowed, the heat 
being about 80 lbs. The ingredients are 
weighed out mixed with a certain quantity 
of scrap, and placed in the pot, which has 
been already heated to redness. The lumps 
of new metal are introduced with a pair of 
tongs, and the scrap by means of a long 
sheet-iron funnel reaching into the furnace. 
A few pieces of charcoal are now introduced, 
and the pot covered with a lid. When the 
charge has melted, the crucible is stirred with 


an iron rod, and the zinc allowed for waste 
is added, the pot being again stirred. Mean¬ 
while the ingot-molds have been prepared 
and placed in position. The molds are simi¬ 
lar to those used for brass and are of two 
halves, clamped together by rings and 
wedges. 'The molds are cleaned, rubbed 
inside with oil, and dusted with powdered 
charcoal (blacking). The caster raises the 
crucible from the furnace, and, holding it in 
position, pours the metal into the receptacle, 
while an assistant keeps back the floating 
pieces of charcoal with an iron rod. The 
mold is now full of German silver, and as 
the portion in contact with the cool surface 
solidifies, considerable shrinking takes place, 
and a hollow core begins to appear at the 
upper central part of the ingot. The skill of 
the workman is now brought to bear in sup¬ 
plying a fine stream of metal to prevent the 
formation of such a core. This stream is 
continued for some time, and the ingot is 
thus fed until the last portions form a pro¬ 
jecting button at the center of the upper ex¬ 
tremity. Mixing, it may be mentioned, is 
always made in plumbago crucibles, the 
charge being diminished in each successive 
heat, to prevent the corrosive flux acting 
successively upon the same zone of the pot. 
German silver is melted in plumbago pots, or 
in the best fire-clay crucibles; the latter are, 
perhaps, better for the purpose, since they 
radiate heat with less rapidity, and remain 
hot for a longer time, a point of some im¬ 
portance when the pouring takes a consider¬ 
able time, as in filling ingots for wire rods. 
If the ingots are intended for rolling into 
spoon strips, the nickel need not be of the 
very finest quality, because such strips are 
thick, and destined to undergo only a moder¬ 
ate amount of mechanical strain. Into metal 
of this kind a little inferior scrap, filings, etc., 
may be introduced; but, of course, it must 
not be supposed that any rubbish will answer 
the purposes of the spoon and fork manu¬ 
facturer. German silver that is destined to 
undergo the trying operations of raising, 
deep stamping, or drafting, must be com¬ 
pounded of the best brands of spelter, such 
as “ Upperbank,” “ D. & Co.,” and of best 
selected copper; the nickel should be either 
grain nickel or the cake nickel made by the 
Nickel Company. A brand of nickel con¬ 
taining varying quantities of copper, imported 
from Sweden in the form of powder, also 
gives very good results. Only a limited 
quantity of the best “raising metal” scrap 


ALLOYS OF COMMON SILVER AND IMITATION ALLOYS. 


should be introduced ; but this little, if good, 
has a tendency to improve the working prop¬ 
erties, although the reason is not very evi¬ 
dent. The ingots of raising metal are now 
planed on the flat faces, in order to remove 
the hard skin and the inequalities which 
would impair the surface of the finished 
sheets; spoon metal is usually not planed. 
When the metal reaches the rolling-mill it is 
treated cold, in a similar manner to brass, 
the first operation being known as “ breaking 
down.” The ingots are passed diagonally 
between very powerful rolls, until they have 
attained to rather more than the breadth of 
the required sheet (to allow for trimming), 
and have, at the same time, of course, in¬ 
creased in length. This treatment is fol¬ 
lowed by passages longitudinally through 


H 5 

smaller'rolls. From time to time, and from 
the outset, the metal is annealed by heating 
it in a furnace and cooling with water; after 
each annealing the scale must be removed by 
pickling in dilute sulphuric acid, assisted by 
scouring with fine sand. Sometimes bright 
sheets are ordered, and when this is the case, 
the final pickling is done with aqua fortis 
(nitric acid). The following table gives the 
composition of the various qualities of Ger¬ 
man silver; “ hollow-ware ” or “ raising met¬ 
al,” it will be noticed, contains proportionally 
less zinc and more copper than spoon metal 
or sand caster’s pig. The mixtures of the 
various makers vary a little, some using more 
copper than others per unit of nickel; the 
former qualities are somewhat reddish, while 
the latter have a yellowish tinge. 


TABLE I.— G. S. as weighed out. 


Quality. 

Lbs. per heat. 

Percentages. 


Copper. 

Mixing. 

(1 & 1.) 

Brass. 

(1 & 1.) 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Nickel. 

“ Best best v . 

8 

34 

27 

55*79 

19-56 

24-64 

“A,” “hollow-ware”. 

6^4 

33 ^ 

26^4 

54'97 

20-07 

24-95 

“A”. 


27^ 

33 ^ 

56-87 

23-73 

19-38 

Special 1st (spoon). 

10 

2 9 

3 ° 

57-23 

21-73 

2 I "O I 

1 st spoon. 

11 

24 

3 ° 

58-46 

23-08 

18-46 

1 st hollow-ware. 

18 

24 

21 

64.28 

i6 - 66 

I 9-°5 

2d spoon. 

8 

18 

40 

56-06 

30-30 

13-63 

2d hollow-ware. 

i 5 

18 

29 

62-10 

23-38 

I 4 " 5 I 

3d spoon and 3d hollow-ware.... 

8 

14 

42 

56-25 

32-81 

10-93 

4th spoon and 4th hollow-ware. . . 

8 

12 

48 

55-88 

35-30 

8.82 

5th spoon and hollow-ware. 

10 Va 

sy 2 

5 ° 

57-76 

36-10 

6-13 

“Portland”. 


6 

54 

55-58 

39-98 

4 T 4 



TABLE II.- 

— As analyzed. 

Results in per cent. 



Quality. 

Copper. 

Zinc. 

Nickel. 

Iron. 

Lead. 

Qual. spec. 4th.. 

. 56 T 8 

- 33 " 1 1 

- 9'57 - 

"39 

- -49 

u u u 

. 56-OS 

- 33-55 

- 9-56 - 

•39 

- -36 

Sp. 1st spoon. 

. 48 -I 7 

.... 29-28 

.... 21-66 .... 

— 

. . . . - 

“ B.B.” . 

. 5 I "44 

- 24-47 

- 23-51 - 

— 

• • • • - 

“ B.B.”. 

. 52-9° 

- 20-38 

.... 26-06 .... 

— 

.... — 

3 d . 

. 64-32 

- 23-98 

.... I I -2 I .... 

— 

.... — 

2d “H.” . 

. 63-34 

.... 22-64 

- 13-58 - 

— 

.... — 

“A 1 , 


- 20-25 

- 23-67 - 

•75 

.... *26 


ALLOYS OF COMMON SILVER AND 
IMITATION ALLOYS. 

HE undermentioned white alloys have 
their various uses in the industrial and 
mechanical arts, some being employed as 
common silver, whilst others are manufact¬ 


ured as near as possible in imitation of it, 
and used as a substitute, for many purposes. 
In melting the alloys in which nickel and 
several other compounds enter into combina¬ 
tion, unless very great care be exercised, it 
is a difficult matter to maintain the true and 























































146 


ALLOYS OF COMMON SILVER AND IMITATION ALLOYS. 


definite proportion of each metal of which 
the alloy proper is composed, owing to the 
loss of the more fusible metal by volatiliza¬ 
tion, if allowed to remain too long in the 
furnace. The best method of preparing the 
compound for the crucible is to mix the 
copper and nickel together. The latter is 
produced from the pure oxide of nickel; 
therefore it is taken in this form and placed 
in the crucible with the copper at the com¬ 
mencement of the operation. When these 
ingredients are well melted, and incorpo¬ 
rated by stirring, add the zinc or other fusible 
metal required to make up the compound, 
previously heating it thoroughly over the 
mouth of the crucible, to prevent the chilling 
of the already molten metal whjph it contains. 
When silver forms a component part in any 
of these alloys it should be added at the be¬ 
ginning of the process along with those of 
high degree of fusibility, and reduced under 
the protection of a suitable flux; charcoal 
being the best for the purpose. This also 
tends to preserve the fusible metals, upon 
their addition to the melted compound in the 
pot, from too suddenly flying away in the 
shape of fumes. The best zinc of commerce 
should be employed in these alloys, which is 
sold under the name of spelter. 

Common silver alloy: — 

Fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 17 dwts.; 
nickel, 13 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 
1 oz.; nickel, 15 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 
1 oz. 3 dwts.; nickel, x 7 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 1 
oz. 6 dwts.; nickel, 19 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, x oz.; shot copper, 
1 oz. 9 dwts.; nickel, 1 oz. 1 dwt. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 
1 oz. 12 dwts.; nickel, 1 oz. 3 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 

1 oz. 15 dwts.; nickel, 1 oz. 5 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 

2 oz. 2 dwts. 12 grs.; nickel, 1 oz. 7 dwts. 
12 grs. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 

2 oz. 10 dwts.; nickel, 1 oz. 10 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 

16 dwts.; nickel, 10 dwts. 12 grs.; spelter, 

3 dwts. 12 gr. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 
19 dwts; nickel, 12 dwts.; spelter, 4 dwts. 

Another: fine silver, 1 oz.; shot copper, 
1 oz. 2 dwts.; nickel, 15 dwts.; spelter, 3 
dwts. 


Chinese silver.—Shot copper, 1 oz.; spel¬ 
ter, 6 dwts.; nickel, 4 dwts.; cobalt, 3 dwts. 
18 grs.; silver, 18 grs. 

Imitation silver.—Shot copper, 1 oz.; 
nickel, 6 dwts. 12 grs.; spelter, 4 dwts. 18 
grs. 

Another: shot copper, 1 oz.; spelter, 12 
dwts.; nickel, 8 dwts. 

Another: shot copper, 1 oz.; spelter, 8 
dwts.; nickel, 4 dwts. 

Another: shot copper, 1 oz.; spelter, 1 o 
dwts.; nickel, 10 dwts. 

Another: shot copper, 1 oz.; nickel, 8 
dwts. 8 grs.; spelter, 6 dwts. 16 grs. 

White alloy.—Shot copper, 1 oz.; tin, 10 
dwts. 6 grs.; brass, 2 dwts. 12 grs.; arsenic, 
18 grs. 

Clark’s patent alloy.—Shot copper, 1 oz.; 
nickel, 3 dwts. 18 grs.; spelter, 1 dwt. 22 
grs.; tin, 12 grs.; cobalt, 12 grs. 

White alloy.—Shot copper, 1 oz.; tin, 10 
dwts.; arsenic, 1 dwt. 

Alloy with platinum; fine silver, 1 oz.; 
platinum, 5 dwts. 

Alloy with palladium; fine silver, 1 oz.; 
palladium, 5 dwts. 

The platinum and palladium of which the 
last two alloys are composed, although very 
difficult to use in combination with any other 
metal, readily unite in any proportions with 
silver; and it has been found that such al¬ 
loys are not so easily tarnished as the ordinary 
ones, or even as fine silver itself. These 
various alloys serve to effect the several pur¬ 
poses for which they are employed in manu¬ 
factures ; wires prepared from any of them 
will supply the place of silver, as brooch 
tongs, stems for pins, catches and joints, etc., 
for articles of common quality and cheap 
workmanship. They are also employed for 
preparing the ground for “ electro-plate ” for 
which they are very serviceable. When, 
however, these alloys are employed by the 
regular silversmith, care should be taken not 
to get the scraps of metal in any way mixed 
with those of the better material, otherwise 
difficulties will soon begin to present them¬ 
selves, which will materially interfere with 
the regular and proper working of the best 
silver alloys; and in fact, with all qualities 
that have originally been prepared free from 
nickel. Those prepared from nickle are 
much more infusible than those made without 
it; consequently, if a piece of the nickel alloy, 
either by accident or design, gets intermixed 
with the other quality, in a subsequent melt¬ 
ing, it will be found to float on the surface of 


SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR USES AND APPLICATIONS. 


*47 


the molten metal for some considerable time 
and thus retard the process. Alloys prepared 
in imitation of silver are harder and much 
more difficult to work than those of the true 
metal; therefore it can easily be imagined 
what alteration the latter undergo upon the 
addition of some of the former compounds. 
The hardness and toughness which these 
alloys possess admirably adapt them for such 
purposes as we have described. 


SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR USES 
AND APPLICATIONS. 

OLDERING as applied to silversmith’s 
work is an art which requires great care 
and practice to perform it neatly and properly. 
It consists in uniting the various pieces of an 
article together at their junctions, edges, or 
surfaces, by fusing an alloy specially prepared 
for the purpose, and which is more fusible 
than the metal to be soldered. The solder 
should in every way be well suited to the 
particular metal to which it is to be applied, 
and should possess a powerful chemical affin¬ 
ity to it; if this be not the case, strong, clean, 
and invisible connections cannot be effected, 
whilst the progress of the work would be 
considerably retarded. This is partly the 
cause of inferior manufactures, and not, as 
might be frequently supposed, from the want 
of skill on the part of the workman who 
makes them. 

The best connections are made when the 
metal and solder agree as nearly as possible 
in uniformity, that is, as regards fusibility, 
hardness, and malleability. Experience has 
proved, more especially in the case of plain 
and strong work (or work that has to bear 
a strain in the course of manufacture), that 
the soldering is more perfect and more tena¬ 
cious as the point of fusion of the two metals 
approaches each other; the solder having a 
greater tendency to form a more perfect alloy 
with the metal to which it is applied than 
under any other conditions. The silver or 
other metal to be operated upon by soldering 
being partly of a porous nature, the greater 
the heat required in the fusion of the solder 
the more closely are the atoms of the two 
metals brought into direct relationship ; thus 
greater solidity is given to the parts united, 
and which are then capable of forming the 
maximum of resistance. It is thus obvious 
that tin should not be employed in forming 
solders possessing the characteristics we have 


just described, for being a very fusible metal 
it greatly increases the fusibility of its alloys; 
but when very easy solder is required, and 
this is sometimes the case, especially when 
zinc has been employed in the preparation 
of the silver alloy, its addition is a great ad¬ 
vantage when it comes to be applied to the 
work in hand. Solders made with tin are not 
so malleable and tenacious as those prepared 
without it, as it imparts a brittleness not usu¬ 
ally to be found in those regularly employed 
by silversmiths ; for this reason it is advisable 
to file it into dust , and apply it in that state 
to the articles in course of manufacture. 

The best solders we have found to be those 
mixed with a little zinc. These may be 
laminated, rolled or filed into dust; if the 
latter, it should be finely done, and this is 
better for every purpose. Too much zinc, 
however, should not be added under any 
conditions, as it has a tendency to eat itself 
away during wear, thus rendering the articles 
partly useless either for ornamental or domes¬ 
tic purposes earlier than might be anticipated. 
Solders thus prepared also act with some dis¬ 
advantage to the workman using them, for 
they possess the property of evaporating or 
eating away during the process of soldering, 
leaving behind scarcely anything to indicate 
their presence; consequently the workman 
has to keep on repeating the process until the 
connection is made perfect, which is always 
done at the expense of a quantity of solder 
as well as loss to the workman as regards 
time. 

Solders made from copper and silver only 
are, generally speaking, too infusible to be 
applied to all classes of silversmith’s work. 

Solders are manufactured of all degrees of 
hardness ; the hardest of all being a prepara¬ 
tion of silver and copper in various propor¬ 
tions ; the next being a composition of sil¬ 
ver, copper, and zinc; and the easiest or 
most fusible being prepared from silver, cop¬ 
per, and tin, or silver, brass, and tin. Ar¬ 
senic sometimes enters into the composition of 
silver solders, for promoting a greater degree 
of fusion; and we have heard of workmen 
actually refusing to work with any other 
solder. The employment of arsenic has, 
however, a tendency to slightly endanger the 
health of those persons using it in large 
quantities; and of late its employment has 
not been persevered in. 

In applying solder of whatever composi¬ 
tion, it is of the utmost importance that the 
edges or parts to be united should be chem- 




148 


SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR USES AND APPLICATIONS. 


ically clean ; and for the purpose of protect¬ 
ing these parts from the action of the air, 
and oxidation during the soldering process, 
they are covered by a suitable flux, which 
not only prevents oxidation, but has also a 
tendency to remove any portion of it left on 
the parts of the metal to be united. The 
flux employed is always borax, and it not 
only effects the objects just pointed out, but 
greatly facilitates the flow of the solder into 
the required places. Silver solder should be 
silver of a little inferior quality to that about 
to be worked up. The various degrees of 
fusibility of the several solders are occasioned 
by the different proportions of the component 
parts of the elements which enter into their 
existence. For instance, a solder in which 
tin forms a component part will flow or fuse 
much sooner than one in which copper and 
silver alone enter into composition, or of one 
wholly composed of copper, silver, and zinc, 
or of silver and brass; therefore it must be 
understood that tin is the best metal for in¬ 
creasing the fusibility of silver solders, and 
for keeping up their whiteness. Neverthe¬ 
less it should always be used sparingly, and 
even then drawbacks will present themselves 
such as we have already alluded to. 

It is our intention to give a list of the vari¬ 
ous solders which have been usually em¬ 
ployed with more or less success, so that the 
silversmith .and the art workman will be en¬ 
abled to select the one most suitable to the 
particular branch of his trade; and we con¬ 
tend, from experience in the craft, that suc¬ 
cess of workmanship mainly depends upon 
this point. 


HARDEST SILVER SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


1 6 

O 

Shot Copper. 


4 

O 


I 

0 

O 

HARD SILVER 

SOLDER. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 

. . 0 

15 

O 

Brass. 


5 

O 


I 

0 

O 

EASY SILVER 

SOLDER. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


13 

8 

Brass. 


6 

16 


I 

0 

0 


HARDEST SILVER SOLDER. 


Fine Silver. 

oz. dwts. 

. . I O 

grs. 

O 

Shot Copper. 

. • O 5 

O 


1 5 

O 

HARD SILVER 

SOLDER. 


Fine Silver .. 

oz. dwts. 

grs. 

O 

Brass. 

. . O 6 

l6 


i 6 

l6 

EASY SILVER 

SOLDER. 


Fine Silver. 

oz. dwts. 

grs. 

O 

Brass. 


O 


I IO 

O 


The silver solders here given are not such 
as we can confidently recommend to the 
general silversmith, having proved them to 
be very unsatisfactory in certain classes of 
work. For example, the first solder, except 
in the case of plain, strong work, would be 
far too infusible to be generally used by the 
silversmith ; the second, although much more 
fusible, cannot safely be applied to very fine 
and delicate wire-work, because the brass in 
its composition is so uncertain ; unless spe¬ 
cially prepared by the silversmith, it probably, 
if purchased from the metal warehouse, con¬ 
tains lead ; the latter is injurious, and in pro¬ 
cess of soldering it burns and eats away, 
much resembling the application of burnt 
sawdust to the work. No really effective 
work can be produced when the above 
symptoms present themselves. The same 
remarks apply to No. 3, which is the most 
fusible, and when free from lead or other 
base metal it may be classed as a tolerably 
fair common solder. In the preparation of 
the solders to which we are alluding, it is 
preferable to employ, instead of the brass, a 
composition consisting of a mixture of cop¬ 
per and zinc, in the proportion of two parts 
of copper to one part of zinc; the operator 
then knows of what the solder is composed, 
and if it should turn out bad he will partly 
know the cause, and be able to supply a 
remedy. 

The solders that we have found to answer 
our purpose best are composed of the follow¬ 
ing elements. The first is described again 
as hard solder, but it is not nearly so hard 
as the one previously described. 




















SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR' USES AND APPLICATIONS. 


149 


BEST HARD SILVER SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver .. 


16 

O 

Shot Copper. 


3 

I 2 

Spelter. 


0 

I 2 


I 

0 

0 

BEST HARD SILVER SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


O 

O 

Shot Copper. 


4 

9 

Spelter. 


0 

*5 


I 

5 

0 

MEDIUM 

SILVER SOLDER. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


15 

O 

Shot Copper. 


4 

O 

Spelter. 


1 

O 


I 

0 

O- 

EASY SILVER SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver.. . 


H 

O 

Shot Copper. 


4 

I 2 

Spelter. 


1 

12 




I 

0 

O 

COMMON 

SILVER 

SOLDER. 




oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


. 0 

I 2 

I 2 

Shot Copper. 


. 0 

6 

O 

Spelter. 


. 0 

I 

I 2 



I 

0 

O 

MEDIUM 

SILVER 

SOLDER. 




OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


. I 

O 

O 

Shot Copper. 


. 0 

5 

8 

Spelter. 


, 0 

1 

8 



I 

6 

16 

EASY SILVER SOLDER. 




oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


. I 

O 

O 

Shot Copper. 


. 0 

6 

I 2 

Spelter. 


0 

2 

4 



I 

8 

l6 

COMMON 

SILVER 

SOLDER. 




OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver . . 


, I 

O 

O 

Shot Copper. 


. 0 

9 

15 

Spelter. 


0 

2 

9 



I 

I 2 

O 


The whole of the above-named solders 
will bleach or whiten properly if applied to 
silver of the suitable quality for such pur¬ 
poses. We have used copper and spelter in 
our silver solders because we have found 
from experience that the fewer number of 
times a solder is melted the better it is for all 
purposes. This result of our experience is 
in direct opposition to those authors who 
have professed to treat upon this subject, and 
who can have had but a small amount of real 
practical knowledge ; for it is argued by them 
that the oftener a solder is melted the more 
properly does it become mixed, and conse¬ 
quently the more fit it is for the workman’s 
use. To such arguments we are prepared to 
give a blank denial, and our reasons for so 
doing we will state further on in this treatise. 

There are various other silver solders used 
by silversmiths, some few of which it will 
be as well, perhaps, while we are on the point, 
to enumerate: 


SILVER SOLDER FOR ENAMELING. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


0 

O 

Shot Copper.... 


5 

O 


1 

5 

0 

EASY SILVER SOLDER 

FOR FILIGREE 

WORK, 


OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


l 6 

O 

Shot Copper.... 


O 

I 2 

Composition.... 


3 

12 


I 

0 

O 

SILVER SOLDER FOR CHAINS. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


O 

O 

Shot Copper.... 


IO 

O 

Pure Spelter.... 


2 

0 


I 

I 2 

O 

COMMON SILVER SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


O 

O 

Shot Copper.... 


I 2 

O 

Pure Spelter.... 


3 

O 


I 

15 

O 

SILVER SOLDER 

WITH ARSENIC. 


OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


O 

O 

Shot Copper.. . . 


3 

O 

Yellow Arsenic.. 


2 

O 


I 

5 

O 





















































SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR USES AND APPLICATIONS. 


15 ° 


EASY SILVER SOLDER. 




OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


. I 

o 

O 

Composition.... 


. o 

5 

O 

Tinsel . 



5 

O 



i 

IO 

O 

SILVER SOLDER 

FOR 

ENAMELING. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 


. I 

O 

O 

Shot Copper.... 



IO 

O 



I 

IO 

o 

QUICK RUNNING 

SILVER 

SOLDER. 



oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Composition.. .. 



IO 

o 

Pure Tin. 



2 

o 



I 

I 2 

o 

EASY SOLDER 

FOR CHAINS. 




oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Composition.... 



IO 

O 

Pure Spelter. ... 



2 

O 



I 

I 2 

O 

COMMON EASY 

SOLDER. 




OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Composition . . . . 


. o 

I 2 

O 

Pure Spelter.... 


. 0 

3 

O 



i 

*5 

O 

SILVER SOLDER 

WITH ARSENIC. 



OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Composition.... 



6 

O 

Yellow Arsenic. . 



I 

o 



I 

7 

o 

COMMON EASY 

SOLDER. 




OZ. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Tinsel . 



IO 

0 

Arsenic. 



5 

O 



I 

*5 

O 

ANOTHER COMMON SOLDER. 




oz. 

dwts. 

grs. 

Fine Silver. 



O 

O 

Composition.... 



*5 

O 

Arsenic. 



I 

6 


i 16 6 


A VERY COMMON SOLDER. 

oz. dwts. grs. 

Fine Silver. i o o 

Composition. i o o 

White Arsenic. i o o 

The solders here given will be found 
amply sufficient to select from for every 
operation of the silversmith, and will answer 
the several purposes for which they have 
been described. When tin and arsenic are 
employed in the composition of solder, either 
together or separately, they should be with¬ 
held until the more infusible metals with 
which they are to be united have become 
melted; the tin or tinsel should then be 
added, and when this is well melted with the 
mass, fling on the top the arsenic, let it melt, 
stir it well together, and pour it out quickly 
into an ingot-mold already prepared for its 
reception. 

When silver and brass, or silver and com¬ 
position, alone form the component parts of 
the solder, these metals may be put into the 
melting-pot together, well fused, stirred, and 
poured out as before. 

Solders into which volatile metals enter, 
upon repeated meltings, become hard, brittle, 
and drossy, and are therefore not so good as 
when the metal has received only one melt¬ 
ing ; it is for this reason that we have al¬ 
ways preferred to manufacture our solders 
from metals which have not been melted be¬ 
fore, or from those which have gone through 
the process as few a number of times as pos¬ 
sible. 

The mode of soldering gold and silver is 
as follows: Take the solder and roll it out 
thin between the flattening rollers, or file it 
into dust, according to the kind of work in 
hand. If filed into dust, it is all the better 
if done very fine; and if reduced to a flat 
state, which should be tolerably thin, cut it 
into little bits, or pallions, which may easily be 
performed with a pair of hand-shears, length¬ 
ways, and afterwards crossways. When this 
is done, take the work which is to be soldered, 
join it together by means of fine binding-wire 
(very thin iron wire), or lay it upon the pumice 
so that the joinings can come close together 
and will not be liable to move during the 
process; wet the joinings with a solution of 
borax and water mixed into a thick paste or 
McLane’s Anti-Oxetyn, applying it with a 
small camel’s-hair pencil; then lay the bits or 
pallions of solder upon the parts to be united, 
and having placed the article upon some suit- 




































SILVER SOLDERS: THEIR USES AND APPLICATIONS. 


able object, take your blow-pipe and blow 
with it, through a gas-jet, a keen flame upon 
the solder in order to melt it; this will render 
the unification of the parts complete and 
compact. 

When filed solder is used, the process of 
charging the article is rather different from 
the above. In the latter case the filings are 
commonly put into a small cup-shaped vessel, 
in most cases the bottom of a teacup, or 
some other similar vessel being used for the 
purpose; a lump of borax is then taken and 
rubbed upon a piece of slate, to which a lit¬ 
tle water is occasionally added during the 
rubbing; when this solution attains the con¬ 
sistency of cream it is put into the solder- 
dish and well mixed with the solder. This 
is then applied to the article to be soldered 
by means of a charger, consisting of a piece 
of round metal wire, flattened at one end, 
and shaped for the purpose it has to serve. 
The joinings, when this kind is employed, 
require no boraxing with the pencil, as de¬ 
scribed under pallion solder; the borax being 
intermixed with the solder flushes with it 
through the joinings to be united, thus ren¬ 
dering any further application unnecessary. 
The process to which we are alluding is 
called “ hard soldering,” and cannot be ap¬ 
plied to metals of a fusible nature; neither 
must it be attempted in the case of goods 
bearing the name of plated, which are put 
together with soft or pewter solder, similar to 
that used by tinsmiths and gasfitters. If 
there should be any soft solder about the ar¬ 
ticle to be soldered by the means we are de¬ 
scribing, it would be almost certain to destroy 
it, the soft solder having such an affinity for 
entering into combination with metals more 
infusible than itself when overheated. 

There is an art in soldering greater than 
some people would believe. The heat re¬ 
quired is of various degrees, some articles re¬ 
quiring a broad rough flame, others a smooth 
one, and others again a fine pointed one. All 
these circumstances connected with the pro¬ 
cess, together with others which we could de¬ 
tail, proving that it is an art only to be acquired 
by practice, must be considered enough ; and 
we proceed to observe that the skillful jeweler 
in soldering a large piece of work will direct 
the flame of the gas-jet to all parts of it, un¬ 
til it is tolerably hot, and then return to the 
spot to be soldered, and by a very dexterous 
movement of the flame, produced by the 
blow-pipe, increase the heat at the spot until 
the solder has flushed and the parts are ren- 


1 5 1 

dered thoroughly secure. So far as some of 
the work of the silversmith is concerned, the 
process of soldering is a very delicate opera¬ 
tion, and ought not to be undertaken by an 
unpracticed hand. 

The method of preparing solder for filigree 
work is worthy of a passing notice. It is 
called by the Germans Lemaille solder. In 
the first place it is reduced to very fine filings, 
mixed with burnt borax powdered fine, and 
in this state it is sprinkled from a spouted 
grater over the work to be soldered. The 
English filigree workers commonly use clean 
filed solder, and by means of the camel’s-hair 
pencil apply a solution of borax to the work, 
and then sprinkle the dry solder upon it from 
the grater. 

In Vienna a kind of powdered borax is 
employed, called Streu borax, or sprinkle 
borax. It is composed of the following in¬ 
gredients, which should be gently annealed 
to expel their water of crystallization, the 
whole well pounded and mixed together, and 
sprinkled over the parts to be joined from 
the spouted grater as before : 

o z. dwts. grs. 

Calcined borax. o 17 12 

Carbonate of soda... o 1 12 

Common salt. o 1 o 


100 

The object of this mixture is to prevent 
the rising of the solder, and to facilitate its 
flushing. Too much of it should not, how¬ 
ever, be put with solder in the grater at one 
time, as it is as objectionable as too much 
borax applied in the ordinary way ; but every 
workman will learn from experience concern¬ 
ing these matters. We have tried this mix¬ 
ture, prepared with filed solder in the ordi¬ 
nary way, and found it advantageous at first; 
but its greatest drawback is the turning of 
the solder yellow if not quickly used upon 
the work after mixing, thus rendering the 
solder permanently injured. For this reason 
we have had to abandon its employment in 
the wet state. But, in its dry state, to the 
silversmith for filigree purposes it is likely to 
be of advantage. It may be remarked that 
this preparation encumbers the work with a 
great deal more flux than borax does, and 
consequently it requires to be more often 
boiled out during the period of soldering to¬ 
gether the component parts. This is effected 
by boiling in a weak pickle of sulphuric acid 
and water, composed of the following propor¬ 
tions : one part of acid to thirty parts of water. 





I 5 2 


COLD SILVERING. 


TO SOLDER SILVER. 

T HE best solder for general purposes to 
be employed in soldering silver consists 
of i g parts (by weight) of silver, i o parts of 
brass, and one part of copper, carefully 
smelted together and well incorporated. To 
use this for fine work, it should be reduced 
to powder by filing; the borax should be 
rubbed upon a slate with water to the con¬ 
sistency of cream. This cream should then 
with a fine brush be applied to the surfaces 
intended to be joined, between which the 
powdered solder (or pellet) is placed, and 
the whole supported on a block of charcoal 
to concentrate the heat. In the hands of a 
skillful workman the work can be done with 
such accuracy as to require no scraping or 
filing, it being necessary only to remove the 
borax when the soldering is complete, by 
immersing in a jeweler’s pickle. 


SILVER SOLDER. 


T EN pennyweights of brass and one ounce 
of pure silver melted together makes a 
good silver solder for plating. 


SILVER SOLDER. 

T HREE dwts. coin weight, one dwt. 

English brass pins. Melt the silver 
alone with borax, bend the pins up double, 
and wrap them up into a compact little par¬ 
cel in thin paper, so as to be readily dropped 
into the molten silver, and not bristle up and 
stick to the sides of the crucible; as soon 
as they melt, give your crucible a shake or 
two and run into the ingot; if you leave it 
long in a molten state after the pins melt, 
the zinc burns out and impairs the quality of 
the solder. Have a good heat on before 
you drop the pins in, especially the lip from 
which you intend to pour off. It is not 
owing so much to any peculiarity in the 
brass of which these pins are made, although 
its excellence and their convenient size rec¬ 
ommend them, as witnessed by their gen¬ 
eral use by the trade for many purposes, but 
it is the antimony with which they are coated 
that gives the solder its good quality. It 
flows easy, will stand chilling in the pickle, 
and retain its toughness; is white enough 
to use on silver, and is suitable for all kinds 
of repairing. 


COLD SILVERING. 

I T sometimes happens that the country 
goldsmith or watchmaker has a silver- 
plated article in repair, and not having a 
battery either in his possession or in working 
order, he is nonplused how to restore the 
silver-plating. For doing this, there is noth¬ 
ing so good as the methods described by A. 
Roseleur, and which are as follows: 


COLD SILVERING BY RUBBING WITH THE 
THUMB, A CORK, OR A BRUSH. 

The results are better than those by the 
whitening process, but not very durable; the 
method is useful to repair slight defects upon 
more durable silverings, and to produce mixt¬ 
ures of gold and silver, or gold upon slightly 
gilt objects, thus avoiding the use of resist 
varnishes. Make a paste by thoroughly grind¬ 
ing in a porcelain mortar, or with a muller, 
and, as far as practicable, not in the light: 


Water.ounces, 3^ to 5 


White fused nitrate of 
silver, or preferably 

the chloride. “ 7 

Binoxalate of potash.. “ 10)^ 

Bitartrate of potash... . “ 10^ 

Common salt. “ 15 


Chlorate of silver.ounces, 3^ 

Bitartrate of potash. “ 7 

Common salt. “ 


Pulverize finely in a porcelain mortar, and 
triturate it under a muller upon a plate of 
ground glass until there is no granular feel¬ 
ing. Keep the paste in a porcelain pot or 
in a black glass vessel, to preserve it from 
the light, which decomposes it rapidly. 
When about to use it, add a little water so 
as to form a thin paste, which is applied with 
a brush or pencil upon the cleansed articles 
of copper, or upon those gilt by dipping, or 
even upon those gilt by the battery, provided 
that the coating is thin enough to allow the 
copper to decompose the silver paste through 
the coat of gold; allow the paste to dry nat¬ 
urally or with the aid of a gentle heat. The 
chemical reaction is more or less complete 
according to the thickness of the gold de¬ 
posit, and the dry paste is of a pink shade, 
or entirely green. The salts are removed by 
a thorough rinsing in cold water and the sil¬ 
ver appears with a fine frosted appearance, 
the brightness of which may be increased by 
a few seconds’ immersion in a very dilute 










COLD SILVERING. 


1 53 


solution of sulphuric acid or of cyanide of 
potassium. This silvering bears the action 
of the wire brush and of the burnishing tool 
very well; and it may also be oxidized. 
Should a first silvering not be found suffi¬ 
ciently durable after scratch-brushing, apply 
a second or third coat. This silvering is not 
so adhering or so white on pure copper as 
upon a gilt surface. For the reflectors of 
lanterns, the paste is rubbed upon the re¬ 
flector with a fine linen pad ; then, with an¬ 
other pad, a thin paste of Spanish white, or 
similar substance, is spread over the reflector 
and allowed to dry. Rubbing with a fine 
and clean linen rag will restore the luster and 
whiteness of the plated silver. 

FOR PLATED SILVER REFLECTORS. 

A bath made of water, i y pints ; nitrate 
of chloride of silver, 2 ounces; cyanide of 
potassium, 1 o y 2 ounces ; add sufficient Span¬ 
ish white, or levizated chalk, in fine powder, 
to produce a thin paste, which is kept in a 
well-closed pot. This paste is spread with 
a brush, or a pad of old linen, all over the 
surface of the reflector, and allowed almost 
to dry, when it is briskly rubbed over with 
another clean dry rag of old linen. 

SILVERING BY DIPPING IN A WARM BATH. 

For small articles, a bath is made by dis¬ 
solving in an enameled cast-iron kettle, in 
two gallons of water, 17 y 2 ounces of ordinary 
cyanide of potassium. Also dissolve $y 
ounces of fused nitrate of silver in 1^ pints 
of water, contained in a glass or porcelain 
vessel. The second solution is gradually 
poured into the first. Stir with a glass rod. 
The white or grayish-white precipitate pro¬ 
duced soon dissolves, and the remaining 
liquor is filtered, if a perfectly clear bath is 
desired. When brought to the boiling point 
it will immediately silver the cleansed copper 
articles plunged into it. The objects must be 
quickly withdrawn. The silvering should im¬ 
mediately follow the cleansing, although the 
rinsings after each operation should be thor¬ 
ough and complete. This bright and light 
silvering is adapted for set jewelry, which can¬ 
not be scratch-brushed without flattening the 
clasps, and to which a bright luster is abso¬ 
lutely necessary as a substitute for the foil of 
burnished silver placed under the precious 
stones of real jewelry. The employment of 
the solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury 
is useless, and even injurious for this bath. 
It is useless to keep up the strength of the solu¬ 


tion by new additions of cyanide and silver 
salt, as it will invariably give results far in¬ 
ferior to those of the former solution. The 
baths should therefore be washed out, as long 
as the silvering is satisfactory, and when ex¬ 
hausted, put away with the waste. With this 
process a battery and a soluble anode may 
be used to obtain a more durable deposit; 
but the operation is no longer a simple dip¬ 
ping, and properly belongs to electro-silvering 
by heat. 

A solution which, when boiling, produces 
a very fine silver coat with a mat, or partly 
mat, luster upon cleansed copper, is made 
by dissolving, with the aid of heat, in a well- 
scoured copper kettle: Distilled water, 9 
pints ; ferro-cyanide of potassium, 21 ounces ; 
carbonate of potash, 14 ounces. When the 
liquid boils, add the well-washed chloride ob¬ 
tained from 1 ounce of pure silver. This 
should boil for about half an hour, and be 
filtered before using; part of the silver de¬ 
posits upon the copper kettle, and should be 
removed when a new bath is prepared. On 
account of this inconvenience, the process 
has been nearly abandoned, although the 
products are remarkably fine. All the dip¬ 
ping silver baths, which contain a compara¬ 
tively great excess of cyanide of potassium 
to proportion of the silver salt, will silver well 
copper articles perfectly cleansed, even in 
the cold; whereas this characteristic dimin¬ 
ishes in proportion to the increase of the 
amount of silver in the bath, or with the de¬ 
crease of the amount of cyanide. For small 
articles, partly copper and partly iron, such 
as those used for saddlery and carriage wares, 
a particular process of silver is used. The 
bath is composed of. 

Water. pints, 9 

Caustic potash. ounces, 6 

Bicarbonate of potash.. “ 314 

Cyanide of potassium . . “ 2 

Fused nitrate of silver.. “ y 

The cyanide, caustic potash, and bicarbo¬ 
nate are dissolved in seven pints of water in 
an enameled cast-iron kettle ; then the remain¬ 
ing quart of water, in which the nitrate of 
silver has been separately dissolved, is added 
to the former solution. For the silvering 
operation, a certain quantity of articles are 
cleansed, thoroughly rinsed, and put in a 
small enameled kettle. Enough of the silver 
bath is poured in to cover the articles en¬ 
tirely, and the whole is brought to a boil for 
a few seconds, and stirred with a wooden 




1 54 


OXIDIZING SILVER. 


spatula. When the silvering appears satis¬ 
factory, the liquor employed is put with the 
saved waste; the same liquid is never used 
for two batches of articles. This process 
gives a somewhat durable silvering with a 
dead luster of a grayish-white, which is in¬ 
creased in whiteness and brightness by soap 
and burnishing. _ 

TO DISSOLVE SILVER FROM SIL¬ 
VERED ARTICLES. 

Cold Bath .—For dissolving silver in the 
cold, the objects are hung in a large vessel 
filled with the following mixture: Sulphuric 
acid 66° B., io parts; nitric acid at 40 0 B., 
10 parts. The articles remain in this for a 
greater or less length of time, according to 
the thickness of the coat of silver to be de- 
solved. The liquid, when it does not contain 
water, dissolves the silver without sensibly 
corroding copper and its alloys; therefore 
avoid introducing wet articles into it, and 
keep the liquid perfectly covered when not in 
use. As far as praticable, place the articles 
in the liquid so as not to touch each other, 
and in a vertical position, so that the silver 
salt will fall to the bottom. In proportion 
as the action of the liquid diminishes pour 
in small and gradual additions of nitric acid. 
Dissolving silver in the cold is regular and 
certain, but slow, especially when the pro¬ 
portion of silver is great. 

Hot Bath .—Nearly fill an enameled cast- 
iron pan with concentrated sulphuric acid, 
and heat to a temperature of from 300° to 
400 0 Fahr.; at the moment of using it, 
pinches of dry, powdered saltpeter are thrown 
into it; then hold the article with copper 
tongs in the liquid. The silver rapidly dis¬ 
solves and the copper or its alloy are not 
sensibly corroded. According to the rapid¬ 
ity of the solution more or fewer pinches of 
saltpeter are added. All the silver has been 
dissolved when, after rinsing in water and 
dipping the articles into the cleaning acid, 
they present no black or brown spots—that 
is, when they appear like new metals. 

These two methods are not suitable for 
removing the silver from wrought- and cast- 
iron, zinc or lead; in these cases it is pref¬ 
erable to invert the electric current in a 
cyanide bath, or to use mechanical processes. 
Old dissolving liquids become green after 
use; to recover the silver they are diluted 
with four or five times their volume of water ; 
then add hydrochloric acid or common salt. 
The precipitation is complete when the set¬ 


tled liquor does not become turbid by a new 
addition of common salt or by hydrochloric 
acid. The resulting chloride of silver is 
separated from the liquid either by decanting 
or filtering, and is afterwards reduced to the 
metallic state by one of the usual methods. 


TO IMITATE INLAYING OF SILVER. 

• ... . . 

A VERY neat imitation of silver inlaying 

for small boxes, handles, and articles 
de luxe , may be made in the following man¬ 
ner: Carefully draw your pattern upon the 
work, and then engrave or cut away your 
lines with sharp gouges, chisels, etc., so as to 
appear clean and even, taking care to cut 
them deep enough, and rather into it, like a 
dovetail, so as to secure the composition 
afterward to be put into the grooves. The 
silver composition may be made as follows: 
Take a small quantity of the purest and best 
grain tin and melt it in a ladle; add to it, 
while in fusion, the purest quicksilver, stirring 
it to make it incorporate; when you have 
added enough, it will remain as a stiff paste; 
if too soft, add more tin, or if too stiff, add 
more quicksilver. Grind this composition in 
a mortar or upon a marble slab, with a little 
size, and fill up the cuttings or grooves in 
your work, as you would with putty. Allow 
it to remain some hours to dry, after which 
you may polish it with your hand, and it will 
appear like work inlaid with silver. 


OXIDIZING SILVER. 

VERY worker in the precious metal 
knows the liability of silver to become 
tarnished in an atmosphere containing sul¬ 
phurous emanations, sewer gas, or sulphu- 
reted hydrogen; in the language of the day 
this tarnishing is called “ oxidizing,” although 
erroneously so, because the silver enters into 
a chemical combination with the sulphurous 
gas and forms a sulphide of silver. The ob¬ 
ject assumes a dark lead-color, and in order 
to restore the brightness of the silver, pickling 
must be resorted to. This proclivity is taken 
advantage of for causing an artificial oxida¬ 
tion upon the silver surface by covering this 
latter with certain re-agents that will produce 
such an effect. Such a re-agent must natu¬ 
rally contain an easily decomposing sulphur 
combination, which the silversmith has in the 
so-called liver of sulphur (German Schwefel- 
leber, sulphide of potassium), which is so 
easily decomposed that it parts with hydro- 






OXIDIZING SILVER. 


*55 


sulphide even at a simp.e exposure to air. 
The workman can readily prepare it himself 
by mixing two parts of sharply dried potash 
with one part of pulverized sulphur, and then 
fusing the mass in an iron vessel. This po- 
tassic sulphide can also be purchased in any 
drug-store; it is a crumbling, liver-brown 
mass, and has to be kept in firmly closed re¬ 
ceptacles on account of its liability to decom¬ 
pose. When a silver article is to be coated 
entirely with sulphide of silver, the former 
must first be thoroughly cleaned from all filth 
and grease with soda lye; it is then rinsed 
in water and at once immersed in a bath of 
the sulphide of potassium solution. Action 
begins at once, and the coating adheres ac¬ 
cording to the state of dilution of the bath. 
The course of the process must not be 
hastened too precipitately, however, as under 
such circumstances the coating of the sul¬ 
phide will adhere loosely and drop off when 
slightly touched. (The writer ascertained by 
experiments that a much more firmly adher¬ 
ing coating may be obtained by exposing the 
article for some time to an atmosphere of 
humid sulphureted hydrogen gas.) It may 
be well to remember that the more dilute 
the bath is the more tenaciously adheres the 
“ oxidation ”; the formation of this is has¬ 
tened by warming the fluid. 

When coated sufficiently with sulphide of 
silver, the article is taken out of the bath, 
quickly rinsed in water, and then dried; if 
the work has been conducted correctly the 
piece must be of a uniform gray color. Or¬ 
namentations may then be executed showing 
the brightness of the silver; this is effected 
in two ways—mechanically and chemically. 
By the former, the layer of the sulphide of 
silver is completely removed with a graver, 
so that the color of the metal underneath is 
made to appear. By the second, that part 
of the design which is to appear bright is 
executed with a goose quill dipped in moder¬ 
ately strong nitric acid, which changes the 
sulphide of silver into a sulphate, that can 
be washed off by dipping the article for some 
time in boiling water, after the drawing of 
the design is finished. The sulphate of silver 
dissolves with difficulty in water. 

It is not easy to produce entirely faultless 
designs in this manner, and especially do the 
contours occasionally lack sufficient sharp¬ 
ness. Sharper designs are obtained by coat¬ 
ing the places of the silver which are to re¬ 
main bright with asphaltum varnish, and, 
after drying, dipping the article into the 


potassium-sulphide bath. When the action 
is satisfactory the article is rinsed and the 
asphaltum lacquer removed by dipping in 
benzoin. 

By tracing the design directly upon the 
article, experiments have also been success¬ 
ful ; a highly concentrated solution of sul¬ 
phide of potassium in water was prepared, 
and so thickened with sufficient thick muci¬ 
lage solution that it could have been used for 
writing and drawing. The designs upon the 
bright silver were executed with a quill and 
brush ; the article set aside for 24 hours, then 
heated so that the dried mucilage mixture 
either dropped off of itself or separated by 
gentle tapping. If the fluid is thickened 
sufficiently with the mucilage solution the 
outlines of the tracings will be of very great 
sharpness, and the dark gray sketches on the 
bright silver will make a very agreeable effect. 

There are two distinct shades in use, one 
of which is produced by chloride, which has 
a brownish tone. For this it is only neces¬ 
sary to work the article with a solution of 
sal-ammoniac. The other, described in the 
proceeding, is of a much more beautiful tint. 

The nice blue-gray to black tone, the char¬ 
acteristic of sulphide of silver, is obtained by 
this sulphur bath; but if the silver ij alloyed 
with much copper the color will be different, 
inclining more to dead black, and not so 
handsome. When, therefore, an oxidation 
simply produced by sulphide of silver is to 
be obtained, the article must be heated to a 
red heat for some time, so as to oxidize the 
copper on the surface to a proportionally 
great depth ; this oxide is then to be removed 
by pickling twice or three times. If the 
color of the oxidized silver is to be very dark, 
passing into a velvety black, dip the article, 
before entering the liver-of-sulphur bath, in 
a solution of proto-nitrate of mercury. The 
article assumes thereby a fairly white color, 
metallic mercury separating upon its surface 
which unites into an amalgam with the silver. 
The solution of the proto-nitrate of mercury 
is produced by dissolving mercury in the 
cold in nitric acid, so that a little mercury 
remains in excess; this solution is to be kept 
in a closed bottle, upon the bottom of which 
is a little mercury. When the article is next 
immersed into the sulphide of potassium 
bath, a thicker layer of a mixture of sulphide 
of mercury and sulphide of silver, of a vel¬ 
vety black tone, is produced. 

The silver oxidation may also be shaded 
by chemical re-agents ; for instance, the ox- 


OTHER METHODS. 


156 

idized article is dipped into a fluid consisting 
of 10 parts of sulphate of copper, 5 parts of 
sal-ammoniac, and 100 parts vinegar, which 
imparts a w r arm, brown color to the bright 
places of the silver. Elegantly colored de¬ 
signs may be produced in this manner by a 
skillful manipulation of the process. For in¬ 
stance, ornamentations are first traced upon 
the bright silver surface with asphaltum lac¬ 
quer ; the article is next oxidized in the liver- 
of-sulphur baths, after which the asphaltum 
layer is removed; next it is dipped into the 
solution of proto-nitrate of mercury, and 
again oxidized, when black designs upon a. 
blue-gray ground are obtained. Now 
brighten certain places of the silver surface, 
dip the article in the above-stated copper 
solution, and you will have the bright spots 
oxidized brown. Care is always necessary 
that the oxidations already produced are not 
ruined by the succeeding ones, and it is al¬ 
ways necessary to coat such finished places 
with asphaltum lacquer. 


OTHER METHODS. 

I. 

ILVER work may be oxidized by any of 
the following processes: 


Sal-ammoniac. 2 parts. 

Sulphate of copper. 2 parts 

Saltpeter. 1 part. 


Reduce the above ingredients to a fine 
powder, and dissolve it in a little acetic acid. 
If the article is to be entirely oxidized, it 
may be dipped for a short time in the boiling 
mixture; if only in parts, it may be applied 
with a camel’s-hair pencil, the article and the 
mixture both being warmed before using. 

II. 


Platinum. x part. 

Hydrochloric acid. 2 parts. 

Nitric acid. 1 part. 


Dissolve the platinum in the mixture of 
acids, evaporate to crystallization, and when 
cold, dissolve again in a little sulphuric ether. 
Apply the mixture with a camel’s-hair pencil 
to the parts required to be blackened. 

III. 


Saltpeter.2 parts. 

Common salt. 1 part. 

Spirits of salts.1 part. 


Reduce the salts to powder, and place it 
in a black-lead crucible along with the acid, 


boil up, and then dip the articles into the 
mixture for a short time, or otherwise apply 
it to the parts required to be oxidized. 

These mixtures will give the various tints 
of oxidation to silver work if properly treated ; 
but if other tints be desired, the following 
chemical substances may be employed ac¬ 
cording to taste: For slate-colored surface, 
dip the articles into a boiling solution of sul- 
phuret of potassium. Strong hydrosulphate 
of ammonia produces a dark tint of oxidation, 
and if diluted with much water a light tint is 
produced. Nitric acid produces a light sur¬ 
face. The fumes of sulphur produce a beau¬ 
tiful blue-colored surface. This operation 
should be conducted in a closed box, and all 
parts not to be blackened should be coated 
with a suitable resist varnish. After any of 
these processes the articles may either be 
scratched or otherwise burnished. 

IV. 

We find the following process for oxidizing 
silver in the Journal des Applications Elec- 
triques: 

The salts of silver are colorless when the 
acids, the elements of which enter into their 
composition, are not colored, but they gen¬ 
erally blacken on exposure to light. It is 
easy, therefore, to blacken silver and obtain 
its oxide; it is sufficient to place it in con¬ 
tact with a sulphide, vapor of sulphur, or 
the sulphides or polysulphides of potash or 
soda, dissolved in water and called eau de 
barege. The chlorides play the same part, 
and the chloride of lime in solution or simply 
eau de javelle may be used. It is used hot 
in order to accelerate its action. 

The bath must be prepared new for each 
operation for two reasons: 1. It is of little 
value. 2. The sulphides precipitate rapidly 
and give best effects only at the time of their 
direct precipitations. The quantity of the 
re-agent in solution forming the bath de¬ 
pends upon the thickness of the deposit of 
silver. When this is trifling, the oxidation 
penetrates the entire deposit and the silver 
exfoliates in smaller scales, leaving the cop¬ 
per bare. It is necessary, therefore, in this 
case to operate with dilute baths inclosing 
only about 3 grams (45 grains) of oxidizant 
at most per liter. The operation is very 
simple: Heat the necessary quantity of 
water, add the sulphide or chloride, and agi¬ 
tate to effect the solution of the mixture, and 
then at once plunge in the silver-plated arti¬ 
cles, leaving them immersed only for a few r 













FROSTING SILVER. 


1 57 


seconds, which exposure is sufficient to cover 
it with a pellicle of deep black-blue silver. 
After withdrawing they are plunged in clean 
cold water, rinsed and dried, and either left 
mat or else polished, according to the nature 
of the articles. 

Should the result not be satisfactory, the 
articles are brightened by immersing in a 
lukewarm solution of cyanide of potassium. 
The oxide, the true name of which would be 
the sulphuret or chloruret, can be raised only 
on an object either entirely of silver or silver- 
plated. 


FROSTING SILVER. 

H AVING been requested to give some 
general information with regard to the 
processes of frosting and finishing silver and 
metal work, we give the following few par¬ 
ticulars with the expressed proviso that, al¬ 
though every process and detail may be here 
laid down for the perfect and most complete 
accomplishment of the art, the uninitiated or 
even the less experienced operator can do 
the same work and achieve such good results 
as the skillful workman. 

The frosting of silver goods is not done 
with an acid or combination of acids, but is 
simply due to scratching with the scratch¬ 
brush. These scratch-brushes take different 
forms, according to the kind of work to be 
submitted to them for frosting, and are made 
of various strengths; that is, the wires of 
them are specially prepared of several thick¬ 
nesses, and when a very fine satin finish is 
required, a brush of very fine wire is taken, 
and so on. A brush with wires thicker and 
thicker in proportion is taken as a more ex¬ 
tended roughness is desired. These wire 
scratch-brushes are fixed upon a horizontal 
spindle in the lathe; the lathe is made to re¬ 
volve by means of the foot of the operator 
and a treadle attached to the crank of the 
lathe, but where a gas or other small power 
engine can be employed it is far preferable, 
as the speed is much greater and far more 
regular. Frosting requires great speed to do 
the work nicely. The wires of the scratch¬ 
brush must lie even on the surface, all of the 
same length, and always kept straight at the 
points, otherwise the frosting will not be 
regular. Sometimes the little hand scratch- 
brushes are employed for coarser work ; four 
of them are taken and firmly secured in four 
corresponding grooves in a circular chuck, 
which screws into the lathe. The ends of 


the four little brushes are repeatedly cut off 
as occasion requires, in order to present a 
straight surface for a continual contact with 
the work. 

Metal work is first prepared for gilding by 
dipping, and when gilt, submitted in the 
same manner as silver to the processes just 
described. 

Metal work can be frosted by acids with 
advantage, whereas no good results can be 
arrived at with silver, or by its treatment in 
any analogous manner, as the color, in the 
first place—and this is highly important— 
would be very inferior, and the frost produced 
would in no manner compare with that pro¬ 
duced by the scratch-brush. 

A few good recipes consist as follows for 
dipping metal goods. Each one effects a 
bright frosted surface upon work submitted 
to their various actions, and this, of course, 
is always providing the alloy is right of 
which such work is composed: 

No. i. 


Nitric acid. 4 ounces. 

Sulphuric acid. 1 ounce. 

Common salt. y 2 ounce. 


y/2 ounces. 

In preparing this solution add the sul¬ 
phuric acid to the nitric, and lastly put in 
common salt in a state of fine, dry powder. 
Keep your work free from water, and dip it 
in the mixture for a few seconds only. The 
w T ork must be scrupulously clean and free 
from grease of every kind. 

No. 2. 


Nitric acid. 4 ounces. 

Muriatic acid. 4 ounces. 

Hydrochloric acid. y 2 drachm. 


Prepare the mixture, and treat it exactly 
in the same manner as the previous one; be 
careful and not leave the work in the solution 
too long. 

No. 3. 


Nitric acid. 1 ounce 

Muriatic acid. 1 ounce. 

Common salt. 1 ounce. 


Well mix these ingredients together by 
stirring, and then dip the work for a very 
short time only, when the object of your de¬ 
sire will be readily attained. 












is 8 


POLISHING SILVER. 


TO ETCH SILVER AND GOLD. 

HE process of etching silver is done for 
the purpose of embellishing an otherwise 
dead flat surface of a certain article. When 
an etching is to be introduced, the place of 
the article is slightly warmed to a temperature 
to melt a coating of beeswax upon it. The 
design is then carefully scratched with a 
sharp-pointed instrument, the etching needle, 
through the coating of the beeswax, work¬ 
ing and managing the lines precisely as we 
would if we were making a pen-and-ink 
drawing, forcibly drawing the outline of the 
design—say a rabbit—and if the operator is 
confident of his ability to preserve the round¬ 
ness of the form, let the furry appearance be 
given in the etching; if not, let him content 
himself with the outline and a few vigorous 
touches, as far as his ability enables him. 

The etching, or “ biting in,” as it is also 
termed, is best done with nitric acid, diluted 
with three or four times the amount of water. 
The piece to be etched should be protected 
all over either with beeswax or shellac var¬ 
nish (shellac dissolved in alcohol). The ar¬ 
ticle or plate to be etched is best sunk in the 
dilute nitric acid, where it should be brushed 
(as it lies immersed in the acid) with a 
camel’s-hair pencil, to remove gas bubbles. 
A little practice will enable one to judge of 
the time required, as acids vary so much in 
strength that no rule can be given. The 
etching can be carried to different degrees 
of depth and width, by the time to which it 
is subjected to the action of the acid ; as, for 
instance, the same line can be bitten in with 
acid so as to be so fine and delicate as to be 
almost imperceptible, but if the acid action 
is continued it will bite deeper and deeper, 
until a full, heavy, strong line is obtained. 
Gold can also be etched by using nitro-mu- 
riatic acid (2 parts muriatic, 1 part nitric), 
diluted in about the same proportions. In 
the rabbit the effects may be varied by mat¬ 
ting some portions and leaving others bright. 
After the etching is complete, and before the 
bright cutting is done, the article should be 
cleaned from the wax by washing with 
spirits of turpentine, and then with soap and 
water, after which it should be dried in box¬ 
wood sawdust. After the etching wax is en¬ 
tirely cleaned off, the etching lines should be 
rubbed with a fine wire scratch-brush, to re¬ 
move any oxide of silver remaining in them. 
Such etch effects can be made in figures of 
men or animals, but more particularly land¬ 
scape scenes. When in the hands of a skill¬ 


ful designer, a witching little rural scene can 
be lined in in a comparatively short time. 


POLISHING SILVER. 

OLISHING is an important process with 
all precious metal workers. It is applied 
for the production of surface to their wares, 
and in proportion to the smoothness required 
upon the work, so should be the fineness of 
the material employed in effecting it. The 
polishing powders are emery, powdered pum¬ 
ice, crocus, rotten-stone, putty of tin, and 
rouge. In the best work, scratches are re¬ 
moved with a smooth and rather soft dark 
gray stone (Water-of-Ayr stone); it is then 
polished in the lathe with a stiff brush, and the 
application of a little fine polishing mixture. 
We have placed the materials for polishing in 
their respective order of smoothness or fine¬ 
ness, beginning with emery, which is the 
coarsest. A very good mixture for ordinary 
work consists of equal portions of emery, 
pumice, and crocus, with oil added to consist¬ 
ence of a thick paste. Good work does not 
want much polishing, for the beauty of it de¬ 
pends more on its being executed by a well- 
trained workman ; whereas rough and badly 
executed work requires much polishing, and 
for this the coarser powders are preferable, 
or a mixture of them; but for the finer, 
better finished work the finer powders should 
be employed. 

The Water-of-Ayr stone employed for pol¬ 
ishing is usually obtained in the form of 
small square sticks, and is used with a small 
quantity of water to the surface of the work, 
in a similar manner to filing. The stone is 
softer than the material upon which it oper¬ 
ates (and, in fact, so are all the materials for 
polishing), and therefore wears away, pro¬ 
ducing a mud-like substance upon the article, 
which should be repeatedly moved, in order 
to ascertain the progress made. This may 
be done with a clean rag, or tissue paper. 
When the work is polished at the lathe it 
will gradually become enveloped in grease, 
etc., which should be removed occasionally, 
to show when the process has been carried 
far enough. The polishing of silver work is 
the branch of the trade commonly performed 
by girls. It is hard work for them, as the 
metal possesses a very soft nature; it there¬ 
fore pulls hard against the brush which holds 
the polishing mixture. The lathe employed 
is the ordinary polishing lathe with a hori¬ 
zontal spindle, and is worked with a common 





RESTORING THE LUSTER OF SILVER. 


*59 


foot-treadle; steam-power is used by some 
firms for moving lathes, but it is by no 
means the usual custom at present. 

After the completion of the polishing pro¬ 
cess, the work is well washed out in a pre¬ 
pared solution, to remove the mixture which 
adheres to it; a solution of soda is found to 
answer the purpose best, both from its cheap¬ 
ness and effectiveness. It should be used 
hot, with the addition of a little soap, and 
with a stiff brush the dirt is soon removed. 
The quantity of soda used to a given pro¬ 
portion of water differs in the trade, and 
there is no set rule to go by; it depends, 
more or less, upon the adhesiveness of the 
polishing mixture. We have found about 
two ounces of it to a quart of water amply 
sufficient for the purpose. 


RESTORING THE LUSTER OF 
SILVER. 

HE best way to restore the original dead 
or lustrous whiteness of silver goods, 
lost or impaired by exposure to sulphurous 
atmospheres, or by having been too often 
and perhaps carelessly cleaned, is effected 
by annealing in a charcoal fire, or before the 
flame of a gas or oil lamp, by means of the 
blow-pipe, which affects the destroying of all 
organic matter adhering to the surface of the 
article, at the same time oxidizing on the 
surface the base metals with which the silver 
is alloyed. The article is allowed to cool, 
and then immersed in a boiling solution, 
consisting of from one to five parts of sul¬ 
phuric acid, and twenty parts of water—the 
quantity of the water depending upon the 
quality of the silver the article is made of; 
the coarser the silver, the more acidulated. 
The boiling in this solution has the effect of 
dissolving the extracted deposit of oxide 
and leaving a coating of pure and fine silver 
on the surface. The time for allowing the 
articles to remain in the solution also de¬ 
pends on the quality of the silver; while 
good sterling silver will be whitened in al¬ 
most an instant, common silver will take a 
minute, or even longer; care is, however, to 
be taken not to allow the articles to be too 
long in the solution, as in that case the sur¬ 
face will turn into an unseemly grayish color, 
and the manipulation will have to be com¬ 
menced afresh; if the silver is very com¬ 
mon, the article will require to be repeatedly 
treated in this manner before the desired 
whiteness is obtained, and in some cases will 


even have to be silvered by the galvanic 
method. As soon as the desired whiteness 
of the article whilst in the acid is observed, 
it is removed and quickly thrown into luke¬ 
warm water; it is advisable to have an ad¬ 
ditional vessel with warm water at hand to 
place the articles in after having been re¬ 
moved from the first. The articles are then 
immersed in boxwood sawdust, kept in an 
iron vessel near the stove, or any warm 
place, when, after thoroughly drying in the 
sawdust, the article will be found to look like 
new. Any places on the article desired to 
look bright are burnished with a steel bur¬ 
nisher. 

The annealing, prior to placing the article 
into the acid solution, requires some care 
and attention, or else the workmanship of 
the piece will be irretrievably lost. It is 
first of all necessary to closely examine the 
article, whether it has been soft-soldered 
previously, as under such circumstances it is 
unfit to be annealed, as the heat necessary 
for this would bum the solder into the ar¬ 
ticles and produce blemish past remedy. It 
is, secondly, necessary to remove all stones, 
steel, or any material not silver, or liable to 
be injured in the fire, and it is also advisable 
to remove pins or tongues from brooches, or 
spiral springs attached to some very showy 
ornaments, to produce a shaking or trembling 
greatly admired in artistic jewelry, in order 
to preserve the hardness of the pins and the 
elasticity of the springs. After being satis¬ 
fied that these precautions have been ob¬ 
served, and the article is without risk fit to 
be annealed, another precaution, and espe¬ 
cially by mechanics not accustomed to such 
work, should be observed, namely, to pre¬ 
vent an over or under heating. If the ar¬ 
ticle is overheated, it is liable to melt, and if 
underheated, the organic matter adhering is 
not effectually destroyed, and the surface 
not sufficiently oxidized. In order to ob¬ 
tain the required degree of heat, and running 
no risk of either under or over heating, the 
article is held with a pair of pincers very 
close over the flame of the lamp so as to be 
covered with soot all over, and then exposed 
before the blast of a flame by means of a 
blow-pipe, until the soot burns or disappears, 
when quite sufficient and yet not more heat 
than is required is obtained. The practice 
of this last precaution will greatly assist the 
manipulation and prevent accidents. 

Silver ornaments which have merely be¬ 
come oxidized by exposure in a sulphurous 




COLD SILVER PLATING. 


160 

atmosphere, and not by repeated cleaning, 
are simply restored by brushing with a clean 
tooth-brush and a little carbonate of soda. 


TARNISHING OF SILVER. 

O F the many agents proposed to prevent 
the tarnishing of silver and plated 
goods, none appear to have given as satis¬ 
factory results as a varnish of collodion—a 
solution of gun-cotton in a mixture of alco¬ 
hol and ether. All other varnishes appear 
to impart a yellowish tinge to the silver or 
plated wares, but collodion varnish is quite 
colorless. The articles should be carefully 
brushed with the varnish, using an elastic 
brush, making sure that the entire surface is 
covered. The film of collodion will protect 
the underlying metal surface for a long time. 


TO CLEANSE SILVER TARNISHED 
BY SOLDERING. 

OME expose it to a uniform heat, allow 
to cool, and then boil in strong alum 
water. Others immerse for a considerable 
length of time in a liquid made of one-half 
ounce of cyanide of potash to one pint of rain¬ 
water, and then brush off with prepared chalk. 


TO CLEAN SILVER. 

AKE either a small sponge, a piece of 
flannel, a piece of chamois, or a clean 
and dry silver brush. Rub all the articles 
which have bad spots with salt, which re¬ 
moves the spots more quickly than anything 
else. The simplest method is to place a little 
prepared chalk in a saucer with water, of 
which make a thick paste, and add a few 
drops of ammonia. In place of ammonia, the 
chalk can be prepared with alcohol or simply 
with water. This paste is to be brushed or 
rubbed carefully over the article. 


RAPID SILVER PLATING. 

R. BURGER recommends the follow¬ 
ing for rapid silver plating: Prepare a 
powder of 3 parts of chloride of silver, 20 
parts carefully pulverized cream of tartar, 
and 15 parts pulverized cooking salt; mix 
it into a thin paste with water, and rub it 
upon the well-cleaned metallic surface with 
blotting paper. After you are certain that 
all parts of the article have been touched 


alike, rub it with very fine chalk powder or 
dust upon wadding or other soft cloth, wash 
with clean water, and dry with a cloth. 


SILVERING RECIPE. 

MONO the several recipes given for ob¬ 
taining a silvering solution, Marquand 
recommends the following of Mr. C. Eber- 
macher, which has been tested repeatedly, 
and was found very useful, as it gives, after 
a short time, lustrous silver layers on metals, 
and especially on brass. Care must be taken 
that the pieces which are dipped in the metal 
bath be treated before in the ordinary man¬ 
ner in a potash solution and dilute hy¬ 
drochloric acid. The silver bath is made 
with a solution of four ounces lunar caustic 
(equal to a solution of two and one-half 
ounces silver in seven and one-half ounces 
nitric acid); the silver of this solution is 
precipitated as oxide of silver by the addi¬ 
tion of a solution of two and one-half ounces 
caustic potash in six and one-quarter ounces 
distilled water; and the precipitate, after 
being washed, is added to a solution of 12 
and one-half ounces of cyanide of potassium 
in one quart of water. This solution is then 
filtered and water added to bring it to four 
and one-quarter quarts. In this solution, 
which is heated on the water bath, the pieces 
to be silvered are left for a few minutes. 
After being agitated, they are taken out, and 
put to dry in fine sawdust, and then polished. 


COLD SILVER PLATING. 

RESHLY deposited chloride of silver, 
well washed with hot water, is mixed 
in equal proportions of table salt and cream 
of tartar, until it becomes a paste, if neces¬ 
sary, with additions of water. The article 
to be silvered is first cleansed with a good 
stiff brush and a solution of soda and soap, 
and thoroughly rinsed to remove any dirt, 
and again rinsed with hot water. It is to 
be recommended to submit it to a dry clean¬ 
ing with pulverized and washed chalk, pum¬ 
ice-stone powder, or quartz powder. When 
well rinsed with cold water, make a ball of 
loose cotton wrapped in soft muslin, and 
with this coat the wet article with a thin 
layer of salt; then rub some of the silvering 
paste onto it until the whole article under 
treatment is well silver-coated. When suffi¬ 
cient, quickly rub with a little ball some 
cream of tartar upon the silvering, and 













SILVER ALLOYS. 


161 


wash. The silver deposit will be found 
handsome, clean, and as white as snow. 


SILVERING WITHOUT A BATTERY. 

S ILVERING by contact is not as dura¬ 
ble as by battery, although the color is 
the same. The solution is prepared as fol¬ 
lows : Take one part chloride of silver, six 
parts prussiate of potash, four parts purified 
potash, two parts salt, four parts caustic am¬ 
monia, four and one-half parts rain-water. 
First prepare the chloride of silver, next dis¬ 
solve the prussiate of potash in water, and 
add then the potash, salt, and ammonia, and 
boil the whole for one-half hour in a porce¬ 
lain vessel; filter, and the fluid is ready for 
silvering. The utmost cleanliness is also a 
primary condition by this method. Heat 
the fluid up by boiling, then introduce the 
article, together with a piece of clean zinc. 
Take it out after a few minutes and brush 
it with cream of tartar, and put it back again 
in the solution, in which leave it for three or 
four minutes. Then brush again, and con¬ 
tinue this until it is sufficiently silvered. 
This silvering will bear polishing with the 
steel, and takes a nice black luster. Articles 
silvered by this method cannot be distin¬ 
guished from silver articles. It is very good 
to protect galvanic casts against dimming. 
But when silvering, no more must be taken 
of the fluid than will be used. 


FROSTING POLISHED ILVER. 

C YANIDE of potassium one ounce, dis¬ 
solved in one-half pint of water. Do 
not hold the silver in your hands, but use 
boxwood plyers, and apply the mixture to 
the surface with a brush. 


PICKLE FOR FROSTING. 

S ILVERWARE may be frosted and 
whitened by preparing a pickle of sul¬ 
phuric acid one drachm, water four ounces ; 
heat it and in it immerse the silver articles 
until frosted as desired ; then wash off clean 
and dry with a soft linen cloth, or in fine 
clean sawdust. For whitening only, a 
smaller quantity of acid may be used. 


SILVER-ALUMINUM ALLOYS. 

A LUMINUM and silver make handsome 
■ white alloys, which, compared to those 
from pure aluminum, are much harder, in 


consequence of which they take a much 
higher polish, and, at the same time, they 
are preferable to the silver-copper alloys, for 
the reason that they are unchangeable in air 
and retain their white color. It has been 
proposed, therefore, no longer to alloy the 
world’s money with copper, but with alumi¬ 
num, which makes it far more durable, and 
even after a long-continued use it retains its 
white color. Experiments on a vast scale 
were for this reason instituted in European 
countries, but for some reason or other, it 
appears that the silver-copper alloys were 
retained. According to the quantities of 
aluminum added, the alloys possess varying 
characteristics. An alloy consisting of ioo 
parts aluminum and five parts silver dif¬ 
fers but little from the pure aluminum, yet it 
is far harder and assumes a higher polish. 
An alloy consisting of equal parts of alumi¬ 
num and silver rivals bronze in hardness. 


WASHING SILVERWARE. 

N EVER use a particle of soap on your 
silverware, as it dulls the luster, giving the 
article more the appearance of pewter than 
of silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it 
with a piece of soft leather and prepared 
chalk, the latter made into a kind of paste 
with pure water, for the reason that water 
not pure might contain gritty particles. 


EXTRACTING SILVER FROM 
WASTAGE. 

M IX your refuse with an equal quantity 
of wood charcoal, place in a crucible 
and heat to a bright red, and in a short time 
a silver button will be found at the bottom. 
Carbonate of soda is another good flux. 


SILVER ALLOYS. 

P URE silver is a metal of only an inferior 
degree of hardness, in consequence of 
which silverware manufactured from the 
pure metal would be subject to rapid wear, 
and for this reason it is generally alloyed, 
except for articles for the chemical labora¬ 
tory. Silver is more frequently alloyed with 
copper; beside this, it is also alloyed with 
gold and aluminum. Alloys containing sil¬ 
ver and nickel, or silver, nickel, and zinc, 
are much employed in the manufacture of 
table ware and articles de luxe, which, while 
being of a handsome white color, are much 









DIPPING MIXTURE. 


162 

cheaper than those from silver and copper, 
which was formerly much used in the manu¬ 
facture of silverware. 


RESILVERING BRASS CLOCK DIALS. 

HE following solutions are generally 
employed for electro-plating: Silver 
solution, No. 1 : cyanide of potassium, 
lb.; cyanide of silver, 1 oz.; water, 1 
gallon. The cyanide of potassium, in the 
form of white cakes or lumps, is dissolved in 
the water and allowed to settle; it is then 
filtered. The cyanide of silver, a white 
powder, is then gradually added to the alka¬ 
line cyanide solution in the above propor¬ 
tions ; it will dissolve on stirring, and the 
result is the electro-plating solution desired. 
It contains 1 oz. of silver to the gallon. 
Solution No. 2: This is the solution of silver 
which is most easily prepared; it is also the 
cheapest, and there is neither time nor labor 
spent in preparing the silver salt for solution 
in the cyanide solution. The materials em¬ 
ployed are: Cyanide of potassium, lb.; 
water, 1 gallon. This solution is placed in 
a large vessel, and a similar solution is placed 
in a flat, porous vessel, which is supported in 
the larger vessel, so that the liquid is the 
same height in each vessel. In the porous 
vessel is put a small and clean piece of iron, 
and in the outer vessel a large and thick 
sheet of pure silver, the iron being so fixed 
that the conductor in contact with it does 
not enter the solution, and the silver being 
supported entirely in the liquid by means of 
thick silver wire. When these details are 
properly arranged, the silver plate and the 
iron plate are so connected with the source 
of electric power that the electric current 
proceeds from the silver to the iron. The 
size of the silver plate may be half a square 
foot, and the electric power employed may 
be equivalent to six Smee’s cells, each with 
an area of 18 square inches. In a few hours 
the silver plate will have lost 1 oz. of the 
metal. The disposition of the metal on the 
cathode is prevented by the use of the porous 
vessel. The liquid in the porous vessel may 
contain some silver; this may be ascertained 
by the addition thereto of muriatic acid. 
Although there is free caustic potash in the 
solution, which by contact with the air be¬ 
comes carbonate of potash, and although the 
resulting solution is not quite so conductive 
of electricity as No. 1, it is a very good solu¬ 
tion in practice, and is said to be less likely 


to deposit non-adherent metal, or, in techni¬ 
cal terms, metal “ that will strip,” than many 
others. _ 

SILVERSMITHS’ ALLOY. 

OPPER, 1 oz.; nickel, 3 dwts. 12 grs.; 
bismuth, 6 grs.; zinc, 2 dwts. 12 grs.; 
soft iron, 12 grs.; tin, 12 grs. This com¬ 
pound is said to form a fusible and malleable 
metal that can be easily worked by the sil¬ 
versmith ; it is also said to resist oxidation 
through atmospheric influences. 


IMITATION SILVER. 

INE silver, 6 dwts.; nickel, 6 dwts.; 
copper, 8 dwts. 


REMOVING GOLD FROM SILVER 
ARTICLES. 

ILVER articles which have been gilt may 
be brought back to their original color 
by simply covering them with a thick solu¬ 
tion of borax, and then well annealing them. 
After this process, if the articles are boiled 
for a short time in one of the whitening mix¬ 
tures and scratched, they will present a 
beautiful white and uniform surface. 


OXIDIZING SILVER. 

BEAUTIFUL deep, black color, pos¬ 
sessing great luster, may be given to 
finished silver work by boiling it in the fol¬ 
lowing preparation for some time : Bromine, 
5 grs.; bromide of potassium, 5 dwts.; 
water, 1 o oz. The boiling should be effected 
in a stoneware pipkin, and generally from 
two to five minutes will suffice for the pur¬ 
pose. The work is finished after the proper 
color has been attained by well rubbing with 
a soft piece of wash-leather and a little best 
jewelers’ rouge. It is better to make the 
work as bright as possible before submitting 
it to this mixture; for this reason it is pref¬ 
erable to thoroughly buff all plain surfaces 
on a piece of felt by the application of the 
lathe, as by that means a characteristic 
brightness is imparted. 


DIPPING MIXTURE. 

RASS or metal goods may be cleaned 
and their oxides removed by dipping 
into the under-mentioned liquid for a few 
seconds only: Oil of vitriol, 5 parts ; water, 














ELECTRO-PLATING SOFT SOLDER. 


5 parts; nitric acid, 2^ parts; spirits of 
salts, two drachms. Well mix the several 
ingredients together, and immerse the work 
in the solution cold. The mixture improves 
after a quantity of work has been dipped 
into it. 


SILVER POWDER FOR COPPER. 

HLORIDE of silver, 2 parts; cream 
of tartar, 2 parts; alum, 1 part. Mix 
with water to the consistence of a paste, and 
apply with a soft leather or sponge; when 
sufficiently whitened, well polish. 

ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Chloride of silver, 1 oz.; sal-ammoniac, 
2 oz.; sandiver, 2 oz.; white vitriol, 2 oz.; 
bichloride of mercury, 5 dwts. ftlake into 
a paste with water, and rub the articles over 
with it; then expose them to a good heat 
upon a clear fire, in order to run the silver 
and evaporate the mercury, after which 
process dip in very weak sulphuric acid to 
clean. 


SILVER-STRIPPING MIXTURE. 

ULPHURIC acid, 6 parts; nitric acid, 
1 part. Take a large black-lead cruci¬ 
ble or pipkin and heat the mixture in it; 
when this is done put in the work required 
to be stripped, occasionally withdrawing it 
to ascertain the progress made. The large 
proportion of sulphuric acid allows of the 
dissolution of the silver, and does not sensi¬ 
bly corrode or interfere with copper or any 
of its alloys, if kept quite free from water; 
therefore be careful not to introduce wet ar¬ 
ticles into the mixture. After finally with¬ 
drawing the work, it should be well rinsed, 
annealed, and then boiled out. 


STRIPPING SILVER. 

UT some strong oil of vitriol in a similar 
vessel to those above described, apply 
heat, and during the process add a few crys¬ 
tals of saltpeter. When the solution has 
become hot enough, the work should be im¬ 
mersed in it, and be moved about or agi¬ 
tated until the silver is dissolved from the 
surface. The articles should not be allowed 
to remain too long in the solution, and if it 
does not remove the silver quickly, more 
saltpeter should be added from time to time 
until the desired end be attained. 


163 

SOFT SOLDER. 

URE tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. Melt, 
and well incorporate together; when 
this is done, pour into strips for use. 


SOLDERING FLUID. 

URIATIC acid (spirits of salts), 3 parts ; 
metallic zinc, 1 part, or as much as 
the acid will take up. When dissolved and 
all effervescence ceases, allow it to settle, 
then decant the clear solution from the sedi¬ 
ment at the bottom of the vessel in which it 
has been made, and it is ready for use. If 
a small quantity of water be added to the 
mixture at this stage, say ^5, it will answer 
quite as well for some purposes. For solder¬ 
ing iron and steel, a very small portion of 
sal-ammoniac is of great advantage to the 
mixture for promoting toughness. 


DISSOLVENTS. 

ISSOLVING fine silver: Nitric acid, 2 
parts; water, 1 part. 

Dissolving silver alloys: Nitric acid, 1 
part; water, 2 parts. 

Dissolving copper: Nitric acid, 1 part; 
water, 4 parts. 

Dissolving soft solder: Perchloride of 
iron, 1 part; water 4 parts. 

Dissolving silver solder: Nitric acid 1 
part; water 4 parts. 

Dissolving sealing-wax: Place for a time 
in a solution of spirits of wine. 


RESIST VARNISH. 

D ISSOLVE resin or copal in essence of 
turpentine, or boiled linseed oil; to 
give it different shades of color, add red 
lead, chrome yellow, or Prussian blue. 


PLATE POWDER. 

HITENING, 2 parts; white oxide of 
tin, 1 part; calcined hartshorn, 1 part. 
Reduce to a powder and well mix together; 
apply as usual. 


ELECTRO-PLATING SOFT SOLDER. 

AKE nitric acid, 1 ounce; water, 2 
ounces ; copper, about 1 ounce in 
small, flat pieces; when the copper has dis¬ 
solved and effervescence has ceased, the so¬ 
lution is ready for use. To apply it, take 


















DEAD-WHITE ON SILVER ARTICLES. 


164 


up a few drops by means of a camel’s-hair 
pencil and apply it to the desired part, then 
touch it with a bright piece of steel, and 
there will be instantaneously a film of copper 
deposited. If the copper has not spread all 
over the desired part the process should be 
repeated, when deposition in the plating bath 
will take place with perfect success. 

ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Take sulphate of copper (that which 
accumulates in the whitening mixture), 1 
ounce; water, 6 ounces. Reduce the sul¬ 
phate of copper to a fine powder and dis¬ 
solve it in the water. Treat according to 
the directions given in the previous one. A 
good mixture for effecting the same result 
may be made by dissolving verdigris in vine¬ 
gar. 


TESTING SILVER WARE. 

AKE nitric acid, 6 ounces ; water, 2 
ounces; bichromate of potash, 1 ounce. 
Reduce the salt of potash to a powder and 
mix it well with the acid and water. The 
solution is used cold, and should be placed 
in a stoppered glass bottle, the stepper hav¬ 
ing a long dropper extending into the mixture, 
which acts as the agent for conveying the 
liquid from the bottle to the article to be 
tested. The surface of the article should be 
perfectly clean; and to make certain what 
kind of metallic substance you are testing, it 
is advisable to rub a file over some obscure 
part of the surface and to apply the liquid to 
that part. The test liquid should be used, 
by means of the glass stopper, to the filed 
part, and immediately removed by a sponge 
dampened with cold water. If the article 
consists of pure silver there will appear a 
clean blood-red mark, which is less deep and 
lively in proportion to the quality of the 
metal. Upon platinum the test liquid has 
no action whatever; on German silver at 
first a brown mark appears, but this is re¬ 
moved by the sponge and cold water; on 
Britannia metal a black mark is produced; 
and on all the various metals an entirely 
different result takes place to that on silver; 
therefore the test is a simple one, and may 
be advantageously employed for the detec¬ 
tion of any fraud in relation to the precious 
metal. 

ANOTHER TEST. 

Water, 2 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2 drs.; 
chromate of potash, 4 dwts. This mixture 


is applied in the same way as before and 
produces a purple color of various depths, 
according to the quality of the silver. No 
other metallic element exhibits the same 
color with this preparation. 

ANOTHER TEST. 

The testing of silver is far more difficult 
than that of gold; an experienced eye 
and a steady hand are necessary for doing 
it. By laying bare a spot with a scraper an 
expert will easily distinguish whether the 
silver has been alloyed with white nickel 
metals, such as cadmium, aluminum, bis¬ 
muth, zinc, etc., which are generally em¬ 
ployed for the purpose; or whether it was 
alloyed with copper, in which case the fine¬ 
ness is easily ascertained by the use of a 
test-needle upon the touch-stone. The eas¬ 
iest test for distinguishing silver from silver¬ 
like metals that can be employed, even by a 
layman, is by scraping or filing a place of 
the article rather heavily, so as to remove 
the coating, for fear that it might be silver- 
plated, and then to moisten the spot with 
nitric acid; if, after wiping it off again, a 
dirty white ground has formed, it is silver; 
if no essential alteration of color has ensued, 
it is a base metal. 


TO REFINE SILVER. 

A FTER having rolled the silver, cut it 
. into pellets, and curl them to prevent 
them from lying flat; then drop them into a 
vessel containing 2 ounces of good nitric 
acid, diluted with one-half ounce clean rain¬ 
water. When the silver has entirely disap¬ 
peared, add to the 2^ ounces of solution 
nearly one quart of clean rain-water. Then 
sink a clean sheet of copper into it; the sil¬ 
ver will collect rapidly upon the copper, and 
you can scrape it off and melt it into a but¬ 
ton. _ 

TO WHITEN SILVER ARTICLES. 

O whiten silver articles, boil them in a 
solution of 1 part of cream of tartar, 2 parts 
of salt, and 50 parts of water, until they as¬ 
sume a fine, unpolished white. 


DEAD-WHITE ON SILVER ARTICLES. 

EAT the article to a cherry-red or a 
dull red heat, and allow it to cool; 
then place it in a pickle of 5 parts sulphuric 
acid to 100 parts water, and allow it to re- 









CLEANING SILVERWARE. 


i6 5 


main for an hour or two. If the surface is 
not right rinse in cold water, and repeat the 
heating and pickling operation as before. 
This removes the copper from the surface of 
the article, leaving pure silver on the sur¬ 
face. When sufficiently whitened, remove 
from the pickle, well rinse in pure hot water, 
and place in warm boxwood sawdust. 


WHITE-PICKLING SILVER. 

HE purpose of pickling silver is the 
same as that of the coloring of gold; 
the alloy lying immediately exposed upon 
the surface is dissolved by the acid in the 
pickle, whereby the metal upon the surface 
is made purer and appears of the color of 
the pure and unalloyed metal. After the 
article has been ground well it is heated to 
red heat and, when cold, boiled in water 
which has been charged with a sufficient 
quantity of sulphuric acid, so that it has the 
acid taste of sharp vinegar, in which fluid it 
is boiled for one or two minutes. The crust 
formed upon the surface of articles which 
are to be burnished is rubbed off with fine 
sand or with the scratch-brush and beer; 
articles which are to be matted with the mat- 
brushing machine, are brushed off with chalk 
and alcohol. This process of heating, pick¬ 
ling, and brushing is to be repeated three 
times. There is another kind of pickling, 
by boiling the heated article in water which 
contains in solution one part cream of tartar 
and two parts table salt. Silver articles 
which are to preserve the hardness imparted 
to them by rolling or hammering, which 
consequently cannot be heated, are pickled 
by being uniformly coated with nitric acid 
or by being silver-plated. 


TO SEPARATE SILVER FROM 
COPPER. 

IX sulphuric acid, i part; nitric acid, i 
part; water, i part. Boil the metal in 
the mixture until it dissolves; then throw 
in a little salt, to cause the silver to deposit. 


IMITATION SILVER. 

ILVER, i ounce; nickel, i ounce n 
dwts.; copper, 2 ounces 9 dwts. Or, 
silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce 11 dwts.; 
copper, 2 ounces 9 dwts.; spelter, 1 o dwts. 


RAPID SILVERING. 

HE watchmaker is occasionally called 
on to resilver old clock faces or other 
parts belonging to clocks. When the article 
is not exposed to handling, the following re¬ 
cipe for silvering will be found to be very 
efficacious: Get ounce of nitrate of sil¬ 
ver, to be had at every drug store, dissolve 
in a teaspoonful of water, and then add 
pound of cream of tartar and % pound of 
common table salt; thoroughly mix these 
ingredients together with a wooden stick, 
adding sufficient water to make a thick paste. 
Put this by in a glass-stoppered bottle for 
use as required, and it will keep any length 
of time. This is the silvering powder, and 
before applying it to the brass this must be 
made quite clean and bright. Get a piece 
of chamois leather, and fold it up small 
enough to be handy; with this rub on the 
silver paste thoroughly all over, till by the 
appearance of the brass work you judge the 
silvering to be properly effected. Now wash 
the article quite clean, finally polishing off 
with a little whiting; this will finish, as far 
as the silvering process is concerned; but 
to make the coating last under atmospheric 
influences, it must be protected by a coat of 
varnish. Any colorless varnish will answer 
for this, which can be procured anywhere. 
Of course the more silver powder is rubbed 
on the thicker the coating, and it will stand 
good for years. _ 

TO REDUCE CHLORIDE OF SILVER. 

NE of the best methods for reducing 
chloride of silver to the metallic state 
is in use in the mint at Paris; it consists in 
mixing 5 parts of dry chloride of silver with 
1 part of freshly calcined lime, and to melt 
it. The chloride of lime thus formed melts 
easily, without rising in, and running over, 
or adhering to, the crucible, which takes 
place by almost every other method, and 
produces a loss of silver. 


CLEANING SILVERWARE. 

A CCORDING to Professor Davenport, 

. hypo-sulphurous soda is the simplest 
and best cleansing agent for silverware. It 
operates quickly, is cheap, and has not yet 
been proposed for the purpose. A rag or 
brush moistened with the saturated solution 
of the salt cleans, without the use of cleaning 
powder, strongly oxidized silver surfaces 
within a few seconds. 












i66 


MAT BRUSHING. 


ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Carbonate of ammonia, i oz.; water, 4 
oz.; Paris white, 16 oz.; well mix the in¬ 
gredients together, and apply to the surface 
of the plate by means of a piece of soft 
leather or sponge. 

LIQUID FOR CLEANING SILVER. 

HE following solution will be found to 
produce a high brilliancy in silver 
work : Cream of tarar, 30 parts ; sea salt, 30 
parts; sulphate of alumina and potash, each 
39 parts; water, 1,500 parts. Boil the arti¬ 
cle in this mixture. 


TO CLEAN SILVER FILIGREE WORK. 

ANY goldsmiths encounter great diffi¬ 
culties in cleaning silver filigree work. 
Put the article to be cleaned in a solution of 
cyanide of potassium. It will come out per¬ 
fectly white and frosted, as when new. 
Rinse with water, and dry by shaking in a 
bag of boxwood sawdust. Another method 
is to boil for a few seconds in a strong pot¬ 
ash lye, take out and rinse in hot water, and 
allow to dry in hot boxwood sawdust. If 
the filigree has worn bright, its appearance 
can be improved by a very slight dip in the 
cyanide of silver bath of the electro-plater; 
this dulls and whitens it, and gives it a very 
chaste appearance. 

ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Anneal your work over a Bunsen flame 
or with a blow-pipe, then let go cold 
(and this is the secret of success), and then 
put in a pickle of sulphuric acid and water, 
not more than five drops to one ounce of 
water, and let your work remain in it for 
one hour. If not to satisfaction, repeat the 
process. This is undoubtedly the best pro¬ 
cess that can be used. 


RECOVERING SILVER. 

CORRESPONDENT inquires of the 
“Workshop Notes” editor how he can 
recover the silver from silver-plated iron. 
We furnish him with two recipes : Pour some 
concentrated nitric acid on the electro-plated 
iron. It will dissolve the silver, leaving the 
iron intact. When the operation is finished, 
pour the liquid off and dilute with water; 
add a solution of common salt. Silver 
chloride will settle as a bulky precipitate, 


which must be filtered and well washed. 
Remove the silver chloride from the filter, 
put it in a porcelain dish, add a few cuttings 
of sheet zinc and a little water, and allow to 
stand for a week or two. The silver will 
then be reduced, forming a heavy gray pow¬ 
der. Remove what remains of the zinc, 
wash well and melt in a crucible, adding 
some sodium carbonate as a flux. Or, pro¬ 
cure an earthenware pan (of course the size 
is determined by the quantity of material to 
be treated) and into it lay the pieces of iron 
until about three-quarters full. Cover them 
with concentrated nitric acid and gently 
warm. As soon as all effervescence is fin¬ 
ished, the pieces are fished out and replaced 
by others. This is continued until the effer¬ 
vescence becomes slight; the pieces of iron 
being washed and the washings added to the 
main quantity of acid. Muriatic acid is 
now added until no further white precipitate 
is thrown down, at which point the whole is 
heated and allowed to stand for some time; 
the clear liquid is decanted off, and the pre¬ 
cipitate thrown into a thick calico bag and 
well washed with hot water and dried. Mix 
the dried mass with carbonate of soda and 
fuse in an earthen crucible, when the silver 
will be found in a button at the bottom. 


INK STAINS FROM SILVER. 

HE tops and other portions of silver ink- 
stands frequently become deeply dis¬ 
colored with ink, which is difficult to remove 
with ordinary means. It may, however, be 
completely eradicated by stirring a little 
chloride of lime into a paste with water and 
rubbing it upon the stain. 


MAT BRUSHING. 

ERY excellent results are obtained by 
running the fine wire matting brush at 
about 2,500 revolutions per minute, applying 
rain-water or sour beer diluted with water at 
the place where the brush strikes the work; 
occasionally hold a piece of sandpaper to 
the brush. Should the points of the brush 
be too straight, let them strike over a piece 
of wire, but do not hook them too much, as 
this would prevent matting. Always pre¬ 
serve the brush in a good condition ; should 
the wires become entangled or twisted into 
knots, separate or cut them out. After the 
work is matted take a soft hair-brush and 
brush it in soap water, then rinse it in warm 












A NEW ALLOY. 


167 


water charged with a small quantity of spirits 
of ammonia and caustic potash; immerse it 
in pure alcohol for a short time and finally 
dry it in sawdust. 

TO CLEAN PEARLS. 

OAK them in hot water, in which bran 
has been boiled, with a little salts of 
tartar and alum, rubbing gently between the 
hands when the water will admit of it. 
When the water is cold, renew the operation 
until the discoloration is removed; rinse in 
luke-warm water, and lay the pearls in white 
paper in a dark place to cool and dry. 


CHARCOAL. 

HE charcoal used in soldering, nor, in 
fact, any other charcoal used by the 
goldsmiths, should not possess the evil habit 
of viciously snapping and cracking. Coal 
burned from oak, or any other coarse-grained 
wood, will snap and crack, while a close, 
fine-grained, soft-wood coal will not. The 
underlay coal may have its snap taken out 
by being heated very hot in an oven or by 
blowing the flame with a blow-pipe upon it. 


JEWELERS’ SOLDER. 

O make platinum firmly adhere to gold 
by sojdering, it is necessary that a small 
quantity of fine or 18-karat gold shall be 
sweated upon the surface of the platinum at 
nearly white heat, so that the gold soaks into 
the face of the platinum ; ordinary solder will 
then adhere firmly to the face obtained in this 
manner. Hard solder acts by partly fusing 
and combining with the surfaces to be joined, 
and platinum alone will not fuse or combine 
with any solder at a temperature anything 
like the ordinary fusing point of ordinary 
gold solder. _ 

ACID-PROOF CEMENT. 

CEMENT that resists acid is made by 
melting one part India rubber with two 
parts linseed oil; add sufficient white bolus 
for consistency. Neither muriatic nor nitric 
acid attacks it; it softens a little in heat, and 
its surface does not dry easily ; which is cor¬ 
rected by adding one-fifth part litharge. 


GERMAN SILVER. 

HE following alloy has recently been 
invented on the continent, and comes 
highly recommended. It is similar to Ger¬ 


man silver, contains no nickel, but man¬ 
ganese instead. It consists of seventy-two 
and one-half per cent, of copper, sixteen and 
one-half of manganese, eight and three- 
fourths of zinc, and two and one-half of iron. 
This alloy is malleable, does not change when 
immersed in water for forty days, takes the 
silver plating well, but is a little yellowish. 


TO RESTORE GERMAN SILVER. 

N order to restore the silver luster to 
articles from German silver which they 
have lost by repeated cleaning, use the fol¬ 
lowing silvering process: Ten parts dry 
chloride of silver, sixty-five parts cream of 
tartar, and thirty parts table salt are pulver¬ 
ized and intimately mixed. This powder is 
then with water stirred to a thin paste, and 
the article is rubbed with it, left to dry, 
rinsed off well with water, and finally rubbed 
off with washed chalk. 


TO SOLDER GERMAN SILVER. 

ISSOLVE granulated zinc in muriatic 
acid in an earthen vessel. Cleanse the 
parts to be soldered and apply the acid. 
Next put a piece of pewter solder on the joint 
and apply the blow-pipe to it. Melt German 
silver 1 part, and zinc in thin sheets 4 parts; 
then powder it for solder. 


NON-CORROSIVE SOLDERING FLUID. 

1 \ A ANY years ago I used to add bicarbonate 
I V i of soda to the soldering fluid to neutral¬ 
ize the acid (or nearly so), and found that or¬ 
dinarily it worked just as well, and did not 
rust steel but very little, if any. The best 
way to remove the fluid from the work is to 
boil it out two or three times in alcohol (fresh 
every time); this removes the acid much 
more surely than any other plan I have ever 
known. Soldering fluid should never be 
used in watch work or allowed about the 
bench. _ 

A NEW ALLOY. 

A NEW alloy, which is known as Nurem¬ 
berg gold in Germany, is at present fre¬ 
quently employed for the manufacture of 
cheap gold ware, and is most excellently 
suited for the purpose; since, as far as its 
color is concerned, it is absolutely identical 
with that of pure gold, nor is it in any manner 
influenced by a continued exposure to air. 

















i68 


CROCUS FOR POLISHING STEEL. 


The alloy will retain its color even after 
violent use, and the fracture will exhibit the 
pure gold color. Its composition is as fol¬ 
lows: Copper, 18; gold, 2*4; aluminum, 
7 #- _ 

MYSTERY GOLD. 

A T the present time a considerable amount 
l of jewelry made of this alloy is believed 
to be manufactured chiefly with the object of 
defrauding pawnbrokers to whom it is offered 
in pledge; and as it will stand the usual 
jewelers’ test of strong nitric acid, the fraud 
is often successful. The article examined 
was a bracelet that had been sold as gold to 
a gentleman in Liverpool. 

The alloy, after the gilding had been 
scraped off, had about the color of 9-karat 
gold. Qualitative analysis proved it to con¬ 
sist of platinum, copper, and a little silver; 
and quantitatively it yielded the following 


results: 

Silver. 2.48 

Platinum. 32.02 

Copper (by difference).65.50 


100.00 

Strong boiling nitric acid had apparently 
no action on it, even when left in the acid 
for some time. _ 

ARTIFICIAL GOLD. 

ETALLIC alloy, at present very exten¬ 
sively used in France as a substitute for 
gold, is composed of: Pure copper, 100 
parts; zinc, or preferably tin, 17 parts; 
magnesia, 6 parts; sal-ammoniac, from 3 to 
6 parts ; quicklime, y part; tartar of com¬ 
merce, 9 parts, are mixed as follows: The 
copper is first melted, and the magnesia, sal- 
ammoniac, lime, and tartar are then added 
separately and by degrees, in the form of 
powder; the whole is now briskly stirred for 
about one-half hour, so as to mix thoroughly, 
and then the zinc is added in small grains by 
throwing it on the surface and stirring until 
it is entirely fused ; the crucible is then cov¬ 
ered and fusion maintained for about thirty- 
five minutes. The surface is then skimmed 
and the alloy ready for coating. It has a fine 
grain, is malleable, and takes a splendid pol¬ 
ish. It does not corrode readily, and is an 
excellent substitute for gold for many pur¬ 
poses. When tarnished its brilliancy can be 
restored by a little acidulated water. If tin 
be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will 
be more brilliant. 


ABYSSINIAN GOLD. 

T HIS compound was so called because it 
was brought out in England during its 
war with Abyssinia. It consists of copper, 
90.74; zinc, 8.33. This alloy, if of good 
materials, and not heated too highly, has a 
fine yellow color, resembling gold, and does 
not tarnish easily. 


ALUMINUM GOLD. 

NE part of aluminum to 99 of gold gives 
a metal' the color of green gold, very 
hard but not ductile. An alloy of 5 parts of 
aluminum to 95 parts of gold gives an alloy 
that is nearly as brittle as glass. An alloy 
of 10 parts of aluminum to 90 parts of gold 
is white, crystalline and brittle. An imitation 
of gold, used as a substitute for the precious 
metal in cheap jewelry, is made by fusing 
together 5 to 7*4 parts of aluminum, 90 to 
100 parts of copper, and 2^ of gold. The 
color of this alloy resembles gold so closely 
as to almost defy detection. 


CROCUS FOR POLISHING STEEL. 

HE commercial crocus does not at all 
times possess the properties necessary 
for polishing the different metals, and it is 
advisable, therefore, for the consumer to 
prepare it for himself, and the manipulations 
to effect this are easy. Take pure and the 
clearest obtainable sulphate of iron (iron 
vitriol, green vitriol, copperas), heat it in an 
iron pan up to fusion, and permit to remain 
over the fire, while constantly stirring it with 
an iron spatula, until it is thoroughly dry and 
drops into a pale yellow powder. This is 
then triturated in a mortar and sifted, placed 
in a new crucible and left in the fire of a 
smelting furnace, or calcined until no more 
vapors are evolved. After cooling, the pow¬ 
der appears as a handsome red material, 
which represents the crocus for the use of 
gold and silversmiths, etc. The crocus is 
found in several color gradations, from pale 
red to brown, red, blue, and violet. The 
cause of the diversity of its colors is due to 
the different degrees of heat made use of in 
its manufacture, the darkness of the color 
increases with the degree of heat, and the 
hardness of the crocus also increases thereby ; 
for which reason a pale red (rouge) is used 
for gold and silver, while violet is employed 
in polishing steel, and known under the name 
of “ steel red.” Each one of the different 













JEWELERS’ ARMENIAN CEMENT. 


169 


kinds of crocus, in order to obtain a favor¬ 
able result, must be ground as fine as possi¬ 
ble, and then washed in water. Three clean 
glasses are used for the purpose, one of which 
is filled with water, and the quantity of the 
crocus is well stirred in with a wooden stick, 
and left to stand for about one half minute; 
the fluid is then carefully decanted from the 
sediment gathered in the glass in the second ; 
after it has stood in this for about two minutes 
the fluid is again poured into the third glass 
and left in it for several hours, to permit the 
complete settling of the powder. The sedi¬ 
ment of the first glass is useless; that of the 
second is a crocus of an inferior quality, while 
that of the third is crocus of the best grade. 
It simply requires to dry slowly to be fit for 
use. It is also advisable to moisten the dried 
powder with alcohol, and in some iron vessel 
to ignite it, whereby the last traces of fat con¬ 
tained in it are destroyed. 

ANOTHER RECIPE. 

Readers living at a distance from ma¬ 
terial houses will sometimes run short of ma¬ 
terial, and it is safe for them to have the 
formulae for manufacturing stuff needed in 
this manner. For instance, crocus is pre¬ 
pared as follows: Table salt and sulphate 
of iron (iron vitriol) are well mixed in a 
mortar. The mixture is then put into a 
shallow crucible and exposed to a red heat; 
vapor escapes, and the mass fuses. When 
no more vapor is evolved, remove the cruci¬ 
ble and let it cool. The color of the oxide 
of iron produced, if the fire was properly reg¬ 
ulated, is a fine violet; if the fire was too 
high, it becomes black. The mass when cold 
must be pulverized and washed to separate 
the sulphate of soda. The crocus powder is 
then to be subjected to a process of careful 
elutrication, and the finer particles reserved 
for the more delicate work. 


SOLDER FOR ALUMINUM. 

HE following alloys are recommended 
for the purpose : 1. Melt twenty parts of 
aluminum in a suitable crucible, and when 
in fusion add eighty parts zinc. When the 
mixture is melted, cover the surface with 
some tallow, and maintain in quiet fusion for 
some time, stirring occasionally with an iron 
rod; then pour into molds. 2. Take fifteen 
parts of aluminum and eighty-five parts of 
zinc ; or twelve parts of the former and eighty- 


eight parts of the latter; or eight parts of the 
former and ninety-two parts of the latter: 
prepare all of them as specified for No. 1. 
The flux recommended consists of three parts 
of balsam copaiba, one of Venetian turpen¬ 
tine, and a few drops of lemon juice. The 
soldering iron is dipped into this mixture. 


ETCHING ON GLASS AND METAL. 

G LASS is etched by means of hydrofluoric 
acid gas or liquid hydrofluoric acid, that 
is, a solution of the gas in water. The 
former in contact with glass produces a rough 
surface, as on ground glass, while the latter 
ordinarily leaves the surface clear. The gas 
is prepared by mixing together finely pow¬ 
dered fluor-spar, calcium fluoride, three parts, 
and strong sulphuric acid, two parts, in a 
leaden dish, and applying a very' gentle heat. 
The plates to be etched may be placed over 
the dish. The operation should be conducted 
under a hood or in the open air, to avoid in¬ 
haling the pernicious fumes. The plates are 
prepared by cooling them while warm with 
wax or paraffine, through which to the surface 
of the glass the design is cut with suitable 
graving. In preparing the liquid acid, the 
mixture of spar and oil of vitriol is placed in 
a leaden or platinum retort which is heated 
and the gas given off is conducted into a 
leaden bottle partly filled with water, which 
absorbs it. In contact with the flesh the 
acid produces stubborn sores. Metals are 
usually etched with dilute nitric acid, or niter 
and sulphuric acid, or sulphate of copper 
and salt, or hydrochloric acid and chlorate 
of potash. 


JEWELERS’ ARMENIAN CEMENT. 

HIS cement hasextraordinarilygreat bind¬ 
ing powers, and is used by the Oriental, 
principally the Armenian, jewelers for gluing 
jewels to metals. It is prepared as follows: 
Soak two ounces of isinglass in water, put it 
into a bottle together with one ounce of very 
pale gum arabic (in tears), cover the ingredi¬ 
ents with proof spirits, then add six large 
tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least 
possible quantity of rectified spirits. Cork 
loosely and boil it until a thorough solution 
is effected; then strain it for use. When 
carefully made, this cement resists moisture 
and dries colorless. Keep in a closely stop¬ 
pered vial. 







COLORING GOLD AS IN ETRUSCAN JEWELRY. 


i 70 


ALUM. 

LUM is sometimes used for removing 
the stains left by soldering in lieu of acids, 
and is also used in removing broken screws 
from brass plates by immersing the plates in 
a strong solution of alum and water, the best 
results being obtained from a boiling solu¬ 
tion, which rapidly converts the steel into rust, 
while it does not attack the brass plate. 


CEMENT FOR GLASS AND METAL. 

RASS letters may be securely fastened 
on glass panes with a cement composed 
of the following ingredients: Litharge, two 
parts; white lead, one part; boiled linseed 
oil, three parts; gum copal, one part. To 
be mixed just before using, and it will form 
a quickly-drying and secure cement. 


VARNISH FOR BRASS. 

ELLOW brass may be made to keep 
its color without appearing to be var¬ 
nished, by means of a thin varnish of white 
shellac or a coating of collodion. 


BRITANNIA. 

HIS alloy as prepared by Roller consists 
of 85.72 parts of tin, 10.34 of antimony, 
0.78 of copper, and 2.91 of zinc. 


BELL METAL. 

A N alloy of copper and tin, in proportions 
. varying from 66 to 80 per cent, of cop¬ 
per and the balance tin. 


SUPPORT OF ARTICLES IN HARD 
SOLDERING. 

SUPPORT for articles in hard soldering 
can be recommended—asbestos board 
—a thick layer of asbestos fibers. This sub¬ 
stance is well known to be incombustible, 
and when felted together loosely makes a 
very good support for heating articles on. 
It resembles thick blotting paper in appear¬ 
ance, holds pins well, and does not burn away 
any to speak of, at least during any ordi¬ 
nary mending operation. It has been con¬ 
siderably used by jewelers, assayers, and 
others, but had one fault—it would curl up. 
It was made of two or more layers, and when 
heated the layers would separate and the 
outer one curl out of shape. This fault has 


been remedied by making a solid block in a 
single layer, with wooden frame or sides to 
keep it in shape and hold it by, thus making 
a very excellent support. This improvement 
is brought out by the Chalmers-Spence Com¬ 
pany, 419 Eighth street, New York, where it 
can be obtained in various forms. One form 
sold by them is a solid block having a cavity 
scooped out, large enough to hold a lot of 
pieces of gold or other metal to be melted. 
At one side of this cavity is a slot extending 
out a short distance. The scraps are put into 
the cavity and a flat piece of asbestos board 
laid over the slot, then the scraps are melted 
as usual. A piece of coal can be laid over 
them to increase and confine the heat if neces¬ 
sary. When all is fluid, it is only necessary 
to tip the block up endways and let the metal 
run into the slot between the two asbestos 
blocks, where it will soon cool into an ingot. 
This saves the risk and trouble of pouring the 
melted metal into another dish or mold to 
make an ingot. Before the melting, the as¬ 
bestos pores are closed by rubbing whiting 
over the surface. _ 

SILVERING SOLUTION. 

HE following is a good silvering solution 
for electrotype plates: Nitrate of silver, 2 
drs.; distilled water, 37 drs. Dissolve and 
add sal-ammoniac, 1 dr.; hydrophosphite of 
soda, 4 drs.precipitated chalk, 4 drs.; agi¬ 
tate the preparation occasionally for twelve 
hours, when it will be ready for use. Apply 
with a fine sponge. 


COLORING GOLD AS IN ETRUSCAN 
JEWELRY. 

HERE are various methods for coloring 
gold as in Etruscan jewelry; in fact, 
every jeweler has a method of his own. The 
following, however, has been successfully 
used for some years, and has given general 
satisfaction: 2j^ ounces crocus, 2 ounces 
yellow ocher, ounces verdigris, 

ounces copperas, ounce white vitriol, 

ounce borax. All these ingredients are to 
be reduced in a mortar to an impalpable 
powder and intimately mixed with 5 ounces 
yellow beeswax; or, 20 dwts. saltpeter, 20 
dwts. common salt, 2j^ dwts. copperas, 2j4 
dwts. white vitriol, 2j^ dwts. alum. The in¬ 
gredients are to be put into an old crucible, 
and set over the fire, and the articles to 
be colored boiled in it until on trial they are 
found to have acquired the desired color. 
















GOLD-LIKE VARNISH. 


The beautiful satin finish is given to the class 
of goods called Roman gold by carefully 
brushing the dead gold surface with a 
scratch-brush made from spun glass. 


RING STICK. 

CONSIDERABLE misapprehension 
exists in the matter of measuring a ring on 
a gauge ; we would say that the edge of the 
ring should come as far as the mark, while 
some contend that the mark on the stick 
should come inside the ring. This is not 
right, because any ring properly made is of 
the same size at the center as it is at the 
edges, and the ring stick is made tapering, 
so that when the edge of the ring is pushed 
up as far as it will go, the center of the ring 
will necessarily stand ofif from the stick. In 
a narrow ring this would make little differ¬ 
ence, but in a wide ring it amounts to 
something. _ 

CEMENT FOR PETROLEUM LAMP. 

OIL 3 parts of resin with i part of caus¬ 
tic soda and 5 of water. The compo¬ 
sition is then mixed with half its weight of 
plaster of paris, and sets firmly in from y 2 
to y of an hour. It is of great adhesive 
power, and not permeable to petroleum, a 
low conductor of heat, and but superficially 
attacked by hot water. 


SOFT SOLDERING ARTICLES. 

OISTEN the parts to be united with 
soldering fluid, then, having joined them 
together, lay a small piece of solder upon 
the joint, and hold over the lamp, or direct 
the blaze upon it with your blow-pipe, until 
fusion is apparent. Withdraw them from 
the blaze immediately, as too much heat will 
render the solder brittle and unsatisfactory. 
When the parts to be joined can be made to 
spring or press against each other, it is best 
to place a thin piece of solder between them 
before exposing to the lamp. When two 
smooth surfaces are to be soldered one upon 
the other, you may make an excellent job 
by moistening them with the fluid, and then 
having placed a sheet of tinfoil between 
them, holding them pressed together over 
your lamp till the foil melts. If the surfaces 
fit nicely, a joint may be made in this man¬ 
ner so close as almost to be imperceptible. 
The bright-looking lead, which comes as a 
lining of tea-boxes, is better than tinfoil. 


171 

HOW TO MELT ALUMINUM. 

O melt alumina use a black-lead cruci¬ 
ble. Drive the alumina foil into an 
iron cone much the same shape as the bot¬ 
tom of the crucible, place the alumina in the 
crucible and cover with crude soda and 
charcoal pulverized together. Heat slowly. 


NON-CORROSIVE SOLDERING FLUID. 

HE different fluids bearing this pompous 
name all labor only under a common 
disadvantage, viz., that they corrode the ar¬ 
ticle for which they are used. We cannot, 
however, vouch for the fact whether the fol¬ 
lowing will do the same or not: Small grains 
of zinc are thrown into muriatic acid until 
this is saturated, to be recognized by the 
cessation of the ebullition ; the zinc also being 
added after this point remains undissolved; 
add about one third the volume of spirits of 
ammonia, and dilute with a like quantity of 
rain-water. The solution of the zinc is ma¬ 
terially accelerated by slightly warming the 
acid. This fluid causes no rust on iron or 
steel. 


GOLD-LIKE VARNISH. 

N excellent gold varnish which gives 
bronze the color of gold is prepared in the 
following manner: Three ounces bright gum- 
lac are dissolved in 2 pounds best alcohol, and 
tinctured either with annatta or gamboge; 
the first gives it a handsome dark gold, the lat¬ 
ter a lemon-yellow color. The bronze to be 
treated is slowly heated over a fire of char¬ 
coal, left to cool a little, and them dipped 
in a mixture of 3 parts water and 1 part nitric 
acid, and left in it until entirely black, which 
requires time of about one or one and a half 
hours. Then take it out, brush it with a stiff 
brush, and dip into strong nitric acid; seize 
it with copper tongs, as those of iron and 
steel are very injurious. When the black 
coating of the first immersion has entirely 
disappeared, take out the bronze, rinse it off 
clean in lukewarm water, and dry in sawdust. 
The operator must be cautioned that the 
smallest part of iron in the bronze will ruin 
the whole piece, by showing itself in the 
shape of a large black spot, which cannot be 
removed or covered. When the piece has 
been thus treated, it is laid upon a red-hot 
iron plate, until so hot that it would burn the 
hand. Apply the varnish in one or several 
coats. 













l l 2 


UNITED STATES OUNCES (AVOIRDUPOIS) IN GRAMS. 


WRITING INSCRIPTIONS ON 
METALS. 

AKE one-quarter pound nitric and one 
ounce muriatic acid. Mix, shake well 
together, and it is ready for use. Cover the 
place you wish to mark with melted bees¬ 
wax ; when cold, write your inscription plainly 
in the wax clear to the metal, using a sharp 
instrument; then apply the mixed acid with 
a feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it 
remain from i to io minutes, according to 
appearances desired, then throw on water, 
which stops the process, and remove the wax. 


GOLD TINGE. 

BRIGHT gold tinge may be given to 
silver by steeping it for a suitable length 
of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid 
and water, strongly impregnated with iron 
rust. 


REFINING SWEEPINGS. 

HE sweepings of the workshop contain 
quite a quantity of gold and silver. To 
8 ounces of the dirt, which has been washed 
and burnt, add salt, 4 ounces; pearl ash, 4 
ounces; red tartar, 1 ounce; saltpeter, y 2 
ounce; mix thoroughly in a mortar, melt in 
a crucible, and dissolve out the precious 
metals in a button. 


POLISHING POWDER. 

N excellent polishing powder for gold 
and silver consists of burnt and finely 
pulverized rock alum, 5 parts, and levigated 
chalk, 1 part. Mix and apply with a dry 
brush. 


FICTITIOUS SILVER 

O. 1. Silver, 1 ounce; nickel, 1 ounce 
11 dwts.; copper, 2 ounces 9 dwts.; or, 
No. 2. Silver, 3 ounces; nickel, 1 ounce 11 
dwts.; copper, 2 ounces 9 dwts.; spelter, 
10 dwts. _ 

PECULIAR QUALITIES OF ALU¬ 
MINUM BRONZES. 

SCIENTIFIC journal says: Five per 
cent, aluminum bronze is golden in color, 
polishes well, and casts beautifully; is very 
malleable cold or hot, and has great 
strength, especially after hammering. The 
7 y 2 per cent, bronze is to be recommended 
as superior to the 5 per cent.; it has a 
peculiar greenish-gold color, which makes it 


very suitable for decoration. All these good 
qualities are possessed by the 10 per cent, 
bronze. It is bright golden, keeps its polish 
in the air, may be easily engraved, shows an 
elasticity much greater than steel, and can 
be soldered with hard solder. It gives good 
castings in all sizes, and runs in sand molds 
very uniformly. Thin castings come out 
very short, but if a casting suddenly thick¬ 
ens, small off-shoots must be made at the 
thick place into which the metal can run, 
and then soak back into the castings by 
shrinkage at the thick part. Its strength, 
when cast, is between that of iron and steel, 
but when hammered is equal to the best 
steel. It may be forged at about the same 
heat as cast steel, and then hammered until 
it is almost cold without breaking or ripping. 
Tempering makes it soft and malleable. It 
does not foul a file, and may easily be drawn 
into wire. Any part of a machine which is 
usually made of steel can be replaced by this 
bronze. The 10 per cent, bronze has a tenac¬ 
ity of about 100,000 pounds, compressive 
strength 130,000 pounds, and its ductility 
and toughness are such that it does not even 
crack when distorted by this load. It is so 
ductile and malleable that it can be drawn 
down under the hammer to the fineness of a 
cambric needle. It works well, casts well, 
holds a fine surface under the tool, and when 
exposed to the weather it is in every respect 
the best bronze known. Aluminum brass, 
consisting of 67 parts copper, 30 parts zinc, 
and 3 parts of aluminum, possesses a break¬ 
ing strain of 48 kilogrammes per square mil¬ 
limetre, and an extensibility of 21 per cent. 
A beautiful alloy is produced by adding a 
small proportion of pure silver to pure alu¬ 
minum. 


UNITED STATES OUNCES (AVOIR¬ 
DUPOIS) IN GRAMS. 


Oz. 

Grams. 

Oz. 

Grams. 

X 

7 

8 

227 

y 2 

14 

9 

255 

•X 

2iy 

10 

283 

1 

28 -35 

11 

312 

2 

57 

12 

34° 

3 

85 

13 

369 

4 

ll 3 

14 

397 

5 

142 

1 5 

425 

6 

170 

16 

454 

7 

198 



























COLORING AND LACQUERING BRASS. 


1 73 


FLUORIC ACID FOR ETCHING GLASS. 

HE operator can make his own fluoric 
(sometimes called hydro-fluoric) acid, 
by getting the fluor, or Derbyshire spar, 
pulverizing it, and putting as much of it in 
a quantity of sulphuric acid as this will dis¬ 
solve. Inasmuch as the acid is very destruc¬ 
tive to glass, it can only be kept in lead or 
gutta-percha bottles. 


TO SOLDER A PEARL RING. 

HE country watchmaker, who is sup¬ 
posed to be conversant with the art of 
soldering, must be very careful when he has 
to perform this on a pearl-set ring, as it is 
quite a risky job, and difficult to hard solder 
under any circumstances; in fact, should it 
be broken up, it can in no other manner be 
hard soldered, except by taking out the 
pearls. If, however, the break is at the 
bottom, or far from the set, it can be hard 
soldered as follows: First, clean the ring 
well, make it the size wanted, fit close and 
even to where to be soldered ; make the size 
a little smaller than wanted, to allow for 
dressing and toning up; tear tissue paper 
into strips, twist it loosely, wrap around the 
sets every way, thoroughly covering them; 
take one coil of binding wire, twist it around 
the paper so as to hold it together; put the 
set part of the ring in clean, clear water, un¬ 
til the paper swells full; lay or pin on a 
piece of good charcoal; put a slip of coal 
between paper and the part you wish to sol¬ 
der ; apply the borax; use good, easy-flow¬ 
ing solder; make a large blaze; blow di¬ 
rectly on the point you wish to solder; keep 
as much of the blaze off the paper as possi¬ 
ble ; make the solder flow quick, and stop as 
soon as it flows; take the ring off the coal 
and put it in the water to cool off. Should 
the paper, during soldering, become dry and 
commence to burn, stop, and apply more 
water on it, tear the paper off and finish. By 
working it this way, the expert man will 
never fail to save the most delicate setting, 
unless the ring is extra heavy all round. 


SOLDERING STONE-SET RINGS. 

T HERE are various ways for doing this, 
but the following will be found to be as 
good as any: Take tissue paper and tear it 
into strips about three inches wide ; twist them 
into ropes, and then make them very wet, 
and wrap the stone with them, passing around 


the stone and through the ring until the cen¬ 
ter of the ring is a little more than half full 
of paper, always winding very close, and then 
fasten upon charcoal, allowing the stone to 
project over the edge of the charcoal, and 
solder very quickly. The paper will prevent 
oxidation upon the part of the ring it covers, 
as well as protect the stones. 


TO PROTECT THE POLISH OF 
METALS. 

ELT one part by weight of best wax par¬ 
affine, and when sufficiently cooled, add 
three parts of petroleum. Mix well together, 
and apply to the polished article by means of 
a soft brush. The protecting film need only 
be very thin, wherefore not too much should 
be applied. _ 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING METAL 
UPON GLASS. 

N order to quickly and well fasten metal¬ 
lic objects upon glass, the use of the fol¬ 
lowing cement is recommended: ioo grams 
of finely pulverized litharge and 50 grams 
dry white lead are intimately mixed together, 
and with boiled linseed oil and copal varnish 
worked into a half stiff paste. The propor¬ 
tion between boiled linseed oil and copal 
varnish hereby is as follows: 3 parts linseed 
oil and 1 part copal varnish. The quantity 
of the latter depends upon the quantity of 
the litharge and white lead used. In every 
case sufficient of the oil is added to the lat¬ 
ter to make a suitable paste. The cement¬ 
ing is very simple: The lower face of a 
medallion, etc., is filled with the cement, 
pressed upon the glass, and the exuding ex¬ 
cess is removed. The cement dries very 
rapidly and becomes very hard. 


COLORING AND LACQUERING BRASS. 

HE FOLLOWING general descrip¬ 
tion of the methods employed in color¬ 
ing and lacquering brass work are useful for 
all metal workers, goldsmiths, mathematical 
and optical instrument makers, etc. Brass, 
it may be remembered, is an alloy of copper 
and zinc, and, by dissolving or cutting out 
either of those metals from the surface, a 
certain amount of variety of color can be 
produced. For instance, if brass is left for 
some time in moist sand it assumes a very 
handsome brown color, which, if polished 
with a dry brush, remains constant, and re¬ 
quires no cleaning or polishing. A darker 











i 7 4 


THE SIZES OF WATCH MOVEMENTS. 


or lighter green color may be imparted if a 
thin layer of verdigris is created upon the 
surface by means of dilute acids, which are 
to be left on until dry. The antique appear¬ 
ance imparted to the brass in this manner is 
very handsome and more or less durable. 
But it is not always possible, for want of 
time, to do this with each article, and a more 
rapid method for effecting the end is there¬ 
fore necessary, and the simplest way to do 
it is to cover the brass with a coat of var¬ 
nish. All the necessary work to be done is 
performed before the bronzing. The brass 
is annealed, dipped in old or dilute nitric 
acid until the scales can be loosened from 
the surface, and is then treated with sand 
and water and dried. The next step is to 
produce the necessary bronze. Although 
this word actually signifies a bronze color, 
it is rather loosely applied in the trades at 
present and applied to all colors. Brown of 
all shades is produced by immersion in a 
solution of nitrate or chloride of iron, the 
strength of the bath determining the depth 
of the color. Violet shades are obtained by 
immersing in a solution of chloride of anti¬ 
mony ; olive green, by means of a solution 
of iron and arsenic in muriatic acid, polish¬ 
ing afterward with a plumbago brush, and, 
when warm, coating with a lacquer com¬ 
posed of one part varnish lacquer, four parts 
turmeric, and one part gamboge. A steel 
gray color is precipitated upon brass by 
means of a weak boiling solution of arsenic 
chloride, and a blue by an attentive treat¬ 
ment with strong sulphide of soda. Black 
is much used for optical instruments, and is 
produced by painting with a platinum solu¬ 
tion or with chloride of gold mixed with 
nitrate of tin. 

The success in the art of bronzing chiefly 
depends upon circumstances; for instance, 
the temperature of the alloy or solution, the 
proportions and qualities of the material 
used for alloying, the proper moment at 
which the article is to be withdrawn, its dry¬ 
ing, and a hundred other minutise of atten¬ 
tion and manipulation, require a skill only 
taught by experience. 

If the brass is to receive no artificial color, 
but simply to be protected against tarnishing 
and oxidizing, it is to be lacquered after hav¬ 
ing been thoroughly cleansed. In order to 
prepare the brass for this coating it must be 
dipped, after having been annealed, and, as 
aforesaid, rinsed and washed, dipped either 
for a moment in pure commercial nitric acid 


and then washed in clean water and dried in 
sawdust, or immersed in a pickle of equal 
parts of nitric acid and water, until covered 
with a white coating of the appearance of 
curdled milk, when the article is taken out, 
rinsed in clean water and dried in sawdust. 
In the first case the brass becomes lustrous, 
in the latter it becomes mat, which is gen¬ 
erally improved by smoothing and polishing 
the prominent places. The article is then 
dipped for a moment in nitric acid as found 
in commerce, and containing a little crude 
cream of tartar in order to preserve the color 
up to the moment of lacquering, and finally 
dried in warm sawdust. When prepared in 
such a manner the article is taken in hand to 
be lacquered, for which purpose it is first to 
be heated upon a hot plate to be lacquered 
afterward. For this purpose is used a sim¬ 
ple alcohol varnish, consisting of i ounce 
shellac dissolved in i pint alcohol. To this 
simple varnish are afterward to be added 
the coloring substances, such as Sanders 
wood, dragon’s blood and annatto, which 
increase the luster of the color. In order to 
moderate the shading of the color, turmeric, 
gamboge, saffron, cape aloes, and gum san- 
darac. are added. The first colors make the 
lacquer reddish, the second yellowish, while 
the two, when mixed, give a nice orange. 

A good pale lacquer consists of 3 parts 
aloes and 1 part turmeric, to one part of the 
simple varnish. A gold lacquer is obtained 
by adding 4 parts dragon’s blood and 1 part 
turmeric to 1 part of the simple varnish, 
while a red lacquer is produced from 32 
parts annatto and 8 parts dragon’s blood, to 
1 part of the varnish. 


THE SIZES OF WATCH MOVEMENTS. 

HERE are four different methods of ex¬ 
pressing the sizes of movements. The 
French and Swiss measure across the dial, 
and give its diameter either in millimeters or 
in French lines. A millimeter is about four 
one-hundredths (-p^) of an inch; or, more 
accurately expressed in decimals, 0.03937 
inch. A French line is about nine one-hun¬ 
dredths ( T ^o) °f an inch, or, in decimals, 
0.0888 inch. 

English movements are sized by what is 
called the Lancashire Movement Gauge, 
which is a three-inch measure. The sizes 
begin with one inch, i. <?., a movement 1 inch 
in diameter is size o. The sizes differ by 
one-thirtieth ( 7 ^) of an inch. Size 16 Eng- 




HOW TO CONVERT THE THERMOMETER SCALES. 


175 


lish would, therefore, be inch in diame¬ 
ter, and so on. But it must be remembered 
that English sizes refer to the diameter of 
the pillar plate of the movement, not that of 
the dial. As everybody knows, the dial of 
an English watch is considerably larger than 
the movement, to allow the dial plate to rest 
upon the watch case, while the movement 
goes inside of the case and is supported in 
its place by the dial plate—the movement 
itself not being allowed to touch the case. 
The dial is five sizes larger than the move¬ 
ment ; so a 16 size English watch would 
have a dial i§l inch in diameter, or, in deci¬ 
mals, 1.700 inches. A French or Swiss watch 
having approximately the same size of dial 
would be called a 19 line watch or a 43 
millimeter watch. The American move¬ 
ments are sized by the Lancashire gauge, 
only omitting the allowance of five sizes be¬ 
tween the movement and the dial—measur¬ 
ing the dial itself to get the size of the watch. 
The table will be found on p. 176. 


CONVERSION OF WEIGHTS AND 
MEASURES. 

ANY people who have no difficulty in 
reading a French journal or book find 
it a nuisance to translate the metric into 
English measures and weights. For such the 
following rule may be useful. To convert 
grams to ounces, avoirdupois, multiply by 
20 and divide by 567. To convert kilo¬ 
grammes to pounds, multiply by 1000 and 
divide by 454. To convert liters to gallons, 
multiply by 22 and divide by 100. To con¬ 
vert liters to pints, multiply by 88 and divide 
by 50. To convert millimeters to inches, 
mutiply by 10 and divide by 254. To con¬ 
vert meters to yards, multiply by 70 and di¬ 
vide by 64. _ 

HOW TO CONVERT THE THER¬ 
MOMETER SCALES. 

ORMERLY, when the different nations 
of Europe kept more secluded one from 
the other, by reason of the want of facilities 
of rapid locomotion, each adopted a coinage, 
weights, and measures, etc., best suited to its 
requirements ; their little traffic jogged along 
all right, and every other nation accommo¬ 
dated itself to the peculiar institutions of its 
neighbors. Times have changed since then, 
however, and international traffic has as¬ 
sumed proportions which even the boldest 
minds of our forefathers did not foresee,- and 


we are beginning to sadly want all our coin¬ 
age, measures of time, of bulk, etc., reduced 
to an international standard, so that one na¬ 
tion living thousands of miles away from 
another will readily be able to understand 
its local institutions in this regard. None of 
the least perplexing are the various thermom¬ 
eter scales; the educated man, of course, 
understands how to compute one differing 
from that used in his country, but then we 
have not all had the opportunity of becom¬ 
ing educated men, and for the latter the fol¬ 
lowing ready means of converting one scale 
into another may be of interest. By the 
way, the thermometer scales are a forcible 
illustration of the Biblical verse about the 
prophet enjoying the least honor in his own 
country. Reaumur, whose scale is princi¬ 
pally used in Germany, was a Frenchman, 
but the French use the Celsius scale (100 °), 
who was a Swede. Fahrenheit was a Ger¬ 
man, but his scale, although almost unknown 
in Germany, is exclusively used in England 
and America. Again, the latter scale, al¬ 
though apparently the most irrational and 
arbitrary of the three, is nevertheless about 
the best for our moderate zone. The reader 
of these Notes is well aware that both Cel¬ 
sius (the centigrade scale) and Reaumur fix 
their freezing point at the congealing point 
of water—a very unsafe point, for irrelevant 
reasons, and call it o 0 ; Fahrenheit, how¬ 
ever, has his zero at a temperature pro¬ 
duced by the mixture of ice and salt, while the 
freezing point is located at 32 0 . The range 
from the boiling point at 212 0 and o° F. 
embraces about all the degrees of heat and 
cold likely to occur in our zone, and thereby 
dispenses with the + or — necessary to be 
added to the other scales ; plus (-f) for de¬ 
grees above the freezing point, and minus 
(—) for those below. For instance, when 
Celsius has— 17 0 , Fahrenheit has still 
T 1.4°- 

Fahrenheit into Centigrade (or Celsius ).— 
Subtract 32 0 from Fahrenheit’s degrees, mul¬ 
tiply the remainder by 5, then divide by 
9. The product will be the temperature in 
Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit into Reaumur. —Subtract 32 0 
from Fahrenheit’s degrees, multiply the re¬ 
mainder by 4, and divide by 9. The prod¬ 
uct will be the temperature in Reaumur’s 
degrees. 

Centigrade into Fahrenheit. —Multiply the 
Centigrade degrees by 9, divide by 5, and 
add 32 to the product. The sum will be 






SIZES OF WATCII MOVEMENTS. 


1 76 

the temperature according to Fahrenheit’s 
scale. 

Reaumur to Fahrenheit .—Multiply the 
degrees on Reaumur’s scale by 9, divide by 
4, and add 32 to the product. The sum 
will be the temperature by Fahrenheit’s scale. 
Tables will be found on p. 178. 


DIAMOND, GOLD, ETC., WEIGHTS. 

TROY WEIGHT. 

I N Switzerland the old French ounce, = 
30.59 grams, is still much used. It is 
divided into 24 deniers, each at 24 grains. 

In England the Troy ounce is divided 
into thousandths. 

In the United States the English Troy 
ounce is divided into 20 dwts. (penny¬ 
weights), each at 24 grains. 1 pound Troy 
= 12 oz. = 24 grains = 373^ grams. 

4 grains = 1 karat. 

24 grains = 1 pennyweight. 

20 dwts. or 480 grains = 1 ounce. 

12 oz., or 5760 grains = 1 pound (lb.) 


DIAMOND WEIGHT. 

16 parts = 1 grain. 

4 grains = 1 karat. 

1 karat = 3^5 grains Troy (nearly). 

151 karats = 1 oz. Troy. 

According to this the karat = 3^^- grains 
Troy. 

In giving the weight of a diamond we say 
it weighs so many karats, or a fraction of 
such karat, and do not express it either in 
grains or pennyweights. 


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

i drachm (dr.) = 27 grains. 

16 drachms = 1 ounce (oz.) or 437^ grs. 
16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) or 7000 grains. 
28 pounds = 1 quarter (qr.). 

4 quarters = 1 hundred-weight (cwt.). 

20 cwts. = 1 ton. 


RANDOM WEIGHTS. 

i ducat = grams fine gold. 

1 mark gold weight = 8 ounces avoirdu¬ 
pois. 

1 loth (German) = 16^ grams. 

1 pound, German (avoirdupois) = 500 
grams. 


1 pound, English and American (avoirdu¬ 
pois) = 453-59 grams. 

1 ounce, English and American (avoirdu¬ 
pois) = 28.35 grams. 


GRAM WEIGHT IN TROY WEIGHT. 


Grams. 


Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grains. 

IOOO 

= 

3 2 

3 

o -34 

9OC 

= 

28 

18 

17.10 

800 

— 

2 5 

14 

9.86 

700 

— 

22 

10 

2.63 

600 

— 

J 9 

5 

19.40 

5 °° 

= 

16 

1 

12.17 

400 

= 

12 


4-°3 

3 °° 

— 

9 

12 

21.70 

200 


6 

8 

14.16 

IOO 

— 

3 

4 

7.08 


SIZES OF WATCH MOVEMENTS. 


English. 


Swiss. 


oize in 
Millimeters. 

0 Size 




30.48 

1 “ 

H lg- 

(31-58 

m.) 

3 1 -33 

2 “ 




3 2 -i8 

3 “ 




33-° 2 

4 “ 

i5 “ 



33-87 

5 “ 




34-7 2 

6 “ 




35-56 

7 “ 

16 “ 

(36.09 

") 

36-4 1 

8 “ 




3 7 • 2 5 

9 “ 




38.10 

10 “ 

i7 “ 

(38.35 

“) 

38-95 

11 “ 




39-79 

12 “ 

18 “ 



40.64 

!3 “ 




41.49 

H “ 




4 2 -33 

15 “ 

l 9 “ 

(42.86 

“) 

43. 18 

16 “ 




44-03 

1 7 “ 




44.87 

18 “ 

20 “ 

(45- 12 

“) 

45 • 7 2 

*9 “ 




46 57 

20 “ 

V 

21 “ 



47.41 

21 “ 




48.26 

22 “ 




49.n 

2 3 “ 

22 “ 

(49-63 

“) 

49-95 

2 4 “ 




50.80 

2 5 “ 

_ ^ « 
2 3 

(51-88 

") 

5i-65 

26 “ 




5 2 -49 

27 “ 




53-34 

28 “ 

., 11 

2 4 



54-i9 

29 “ 




55-°3 

3° “ 




55-88 










THE NEW METRIC SYSTEM OF SPECTACLE LENSES. 


x 77 


SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

AKING water at i.o, the specific weight 
of aluminum is 2.56; zinc, cast, 6.80; 
zinc, rolled, 7.20; iron, cast, 6.90-7.50; 
iron, wrought, 7.60-7.84; German silver 
and brass, 8.55; copper, cast, 8.75; cop¬ 
per, wrought, 8.78-9.00; bell metal, 8.80 ; 
nickel, 8.82 ; silver, 10.57 I palladium, 
11.80; mercury, 15.60; gold, 19.26; plat¬ 
inum, 21.50. 


CONVERSION OF MILLIMETER AND 
INCH MEASURES. 


Millimeter. 

Inch. 

Millimeter. 

Inch. 

O . OI 

O.OOO3937 

l8 

0.70866 

O . 02 

O.OOO7874 

J 9 

O.74803 

O.O3 

O.OOII8l I 



0.04 

O.OOI5748 

20 

O.78740 

O.05 

O.OOI9685 

21 

O .82677 

O . 06 

O.OO23622 

22 

O.86614 

O . 07 

O.OO26559 

2 3 

O.9055I 

O . 08 

O.OO31496 

2 4 

O.94488 

O 

O 

VO 

O.OO35433 

2 5 

O . 984.25 



26 

x.02362 

O . I 

0.003937 

2 7 

I . 06299 

O . 2 

O.OO7874 

28 

I . IO236 

°*3 

0.01181I 

2 9 

1 • H 1 73 

0.4 

O.OI5748 



0-5 

O.OI9685 

3 ° 

1.18110 

0.6 

O.O23622 

3 i 

1.22047 

0.7 

O.O26559 

3 2 

1.25984 

0.8 

O.O31496 

33 

1.29921 

0.9 

0.035433 

34 

1 • 33 8 5 8 



35 

1-37795 

1 

0.03937 

3 6 

i. 4 i 73 2 

2 

O.07874 

37 

1.45669 

3 

O. I l8l I 

3 8 

1.49606 

4 

O.15748 

39 

1 -53543 

5 

O . 19685 



6 

O.23622 

40 

1.57480 

7 

O.26559 

41 

1.61417 

8 

O.31496 

4 2 

1.65354 

9 

0.35433 

43 

1.69291 



44 

1.73228 

1 0 

0.39370 

45 

1 - 77 i6 5 

11 

0 . 433 0 7 

46 

1.81102 

12 

O.47244 

47 

1.85039 

l 3 

O.5H81 

48 

1.88976 

14 

O.55H8 

49 

1• 9 2 9 1 3 

15 

O.59056 



16 

O.62992 

50 

1.96850 

G 

O.66929 




CONVERSION OF MILLIMETER AND 
INCH MEASURES—Continued. 


Inch. 

Millimeter. 

Inch. 

Millimeter. 

0.001 

O.O25399 

0.2 

5.0798 

O . 002 

0.050798 

0-3 

7.6197 

O.OO3 

O.076197 

0-4 

IO.I596 

O . OO4 

O.IOI596 

°-5 

12.6995 

O.O05 

O.126995 

0.6 

I 5.2394 

O . 006 

0.152394 

0.7 

17.7793 

O . 007 

0.177793 

.0.8 

20.3192 

O . 008 

0.203192 

0.9 

22.8591 

O . OO9 

0.228591 





1.0 

25.8990 

O . OI 

0.25399 

1.1 

27.9389 

O . 02 

0.50798 

1 .2 

30.4788 

O.O3 

0.76197 

!-3 

33-° l8 7 

O.O4 

1.01596 

, 1 -4 

35-5586 

0.05 

1.26995 

!-5 

38.0985 

O . 06 

!• 52394 

i. 6 

40.6384 

O.07 

1 -77793 

1 -7 

43 • 1 783 

O . 08 

2.03192 

1.8 

45 • 7 I§ 2 

O.O9 

2.28591 

1.9 

48.2581 

O. I 

2-5399 

2.0 

50.7980 


THE NEW METRIC SYSTEM OF 
SPECTACLE LENSES. 


OLD SYSTEM. 

Numbers in 
inches. 

NEW SYSTEM. 

Numbers in 
Dioptrics. 

OLD SYSTEM. 

Numbers in 
inches. 

NEW SYSTEM. 

Numbers in 
Dioptrics. 

(l6o) 

2.25 

8 

5 - 

80 

o -5 

7/4 

(5-25) 

60 

(0.67) 

7 

5-5 

50 

o -75 

6^ 

6. 

40 

1. 

6 

6-5 

36 

(1.11) 

sK 

7 - 

3 ° 

1.25 

5^4 

7-5 

24 

r -5 

5 

8. 

(22) 

I -75 

4/4 

9 - 

20 

2. 

4 

10. 

l8 

2.25 

3^ 

10.5 

16 

2-5 

3/4 

11. 

H 

2-75 

i'A 

12. 

13 

3 - 

3 

13 - 

12 

3- 2 5 


14. 

11 

3-5 

2 /4 

16. 

10 

4 - 


18. 

9 

4-5 

2 

20. 






































CONVERSION OF THE DIFFERENT THERMOMETER SCALES. 


THE SCALES BELOW ZERO. 


c . 

R. 

F. 

c . 

R. 

F. 

c . 

R. 

F. 

—30 

- 24.O 

- 22.0 

—20 

- 16.O 

— 4.0 

—10 

—8.0 

14.O 

—29 

—23.2 

- 20.2 

—19 

— 15.2 

— 2.4 

— 9 

—7.2 

1 5-8 

—28 

- 22.4 

- 18.4 

—18 

— 14.4 

0.4 

— 8 

—6.4 

17.6 

—27 

- 2 1.6 

- 16.6 

—17 

— 13.6 

1.4 

— 7 

—5.6 

19.4 

— 26 

- 20.8 

- 14.8 

— 16 

— 12.8 

3-2 

— 6 

—4.8 

21.2 

— 2 5 

- 20.0 

- 13 -° 

— 15 

- 1 2.0 

5 *° 

— 5 

—4.0 

23.0 

—24 

- 19.2 

- 1 I .2 

—14 

- 1 1.2 

6.8 

— 4 

— 3-2 • 

24.8 

—23 

- 18.4 

— 94 

— r 3 

- IO.4 

8.6 

— 3 

—2.4 

26.6 

— 22 

- 17.6 

— 7.6 

—12 

— 9.6 

10.4 

— 2 

—1.6 

28.4 

—21 

— l 6.8 

- 5 - 8 . 

—11 

— 8.8 

12.2 

— 1 

—0.8 

30.2 


THE SCALES ABOVE ZERO. 


c . 

R. 

F. 

c . 

R. 

F. 

c . 

R. 

F. 

0 

0.0 

32.O 

34 

27.2 

93-2 

68 

544 

1544 

1 

0.8 

33-8 

35 

28.0 

95 -° 

69 

55-2 

156.2 

2 

1.6 

35 - 6 

3 6 

28.8 

96.8 

70 

56.0 

158.O 

3 

2.4 

37-4 

37 

29.6 

98.6 

7 1 

56.8 

159.8 

4 

3-2 

39-2 

38 

3°4 

100.4 

72 

57-6 

161.6 

5 

4.0 

41.0 

39 

3 1 - 2 

102.2 

73 

584 

^34 

6 

4.8 

42.8 

40 

32.0 

104.0 

74 

59-2 

165.2 

7 

5 - 6 

44.6 

4 i 

32.8 

105.8 

75 

60.0 

167.0 

8 

6.4 

46.4 

42 

33-6 

107.6 

76 

60.8 

168.8 

9 

7.2 

48.2 

43 

34-4 

109.4 

77 

61.6 

170.6 

10 

8.0 

50.0 

44 

35-2 

111.2 

78 

62.4 

i 72.4 

11 

8.8 

5 j -8 

45 

36.0 

113.0 

79 

63.2 

174.2 

12 

9.6 

53-6 

46 

36.8 

114.8 

80 

64.0 

176.0 

T 3 

10.4 

55-4 

47 

37-6 

116.6 

81 

64.8 

1 7 7*8 

14 

11.2 

57-2 

48 

38.4 

118.4 

82 

65.6 

179.6 

15 

12.0 

59 -o 

49 

39-2 

120.2 

83 

66.4 

181.4 

16 

12.8 

60.8 

5 ° 

40.0 

122.0 

84 

67.2 

183.2 

*7 

t 3-6 

62.6 

5 1 

40.8 

123.8 

85 

68.0 

!85.o 

18 

14.4 

64.4 

52 

41.6 

125.6 

86 

68.8 

186.8 

l 9 

15.2 

66.2 

53 

42.4 

12 7-4 

87 

69.6 

188.6 

20 

16.0 

68.0 

54 

43-2 

129.2 

88 

70.4 

190.4 

21 

16.8 

69.8 

55 

44.0 

I 3 I -° 

89 

71.2 

192.2 

22 

17.6 

71.6 

56 

44.8 

132.8 

90 

72.0 

194.0 

23 

18.4 

73-4 

57 

45 - 6 

134.6 

9 1 

72.8 

195.8 

24 

19.2 

75-2 

58 

46.4 

r 3 6 4 

9 2 

73-6 

j 97*6 

25 

20.0 

77.0 

59 

47.2 

138.2 

93 

744 

i 994 

26 

20.8 

78.8 

60 

48.0 

140.0 

94 

75-2 

201.2 

27 

21.6 

80.6 

61 

48.8 

141.8 

95 

76.0 

203.0 

28 

22.4 

82.4 

62 

49.6 

j 43-6 

96 

76.8 

204.8 

29 

23.2 

84.2 

6 3 

5°4 

1454 

97 

77.6 

206.6 

3 ° 

24.0 

86.0 

64 

5 i -2 

147.2 

98 

78.4 

208.4 

3 1 

24.8 

87.8 

6 5 

52.0 

149.0 

99 

79.2 

210.2 

32 

25.6 

89.6 

66 

52.8 

150.8 

100 

80.0 

212.0 

33 

26.4 

9 T 4 

67 

53-6 

152.6 















































KARATS IN THOUSANDTHS. 


179 


CONVERSION OF GRAM WEIGHT INTO TROV WEIGHT. 


Grams. 

SWISS. 

ENGLISH. 

AMERICAN. 



• 






Oz. 

Deniers. 

Grains. 

Oz. in Yooo' 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grains. 

I 



18.83 

0.032 



15-43 

2 


I 

I 3-67 

0.064 


I 

6.86 

3 


2 

8.50 

0.096 


I 

22.30 

4 


3 

3-33 

0.129 


2 

13-73 

5 


3 

22.17 

0.161 


3 

5.16 

6 


4 

17.00 

0.193 


3 

20.59 

7 


5 

18.83 

0.225 


4 

12.03 

8 


6 

6.67 

0.257 


5 

3-46 

9 


7 

I -5° 

0.290 


5 

18.89 

10 


7 

20.33 

0.322 


6 

10.32 

20 


15 

16.70 

0.644 


12 

20.60 

30 


2 3 

13.00 

0.965 


*9 

7.00 

40 

1 

7 

9 - 3 ° 

1.288 

1 

5 

1 7 - 3 ° 

48 

1 

J 3 

16.00 

1 *545 

1 

10 

20.70 


MELTING POINTS OF THE PRIN¬ 
CIPAL METALS. 


Names of elements. 

Fahrenheit. 

Centigrade. 

Platinum *. 



Cast-iron. 

2786 

1530 

Nickel. 

27OO 

1482 

Gold. 

2016 

1102 

Copper. 

1984 

IO9O 

Silver. 

i8 73 

1023 

Aluminum. 

1300 

7°5 

Zinc. 

773 

412 

Lead. 

612 

3 22 

Bismuth. 

497 

258 

Tin. 

442 

228 

Antimony t. 



* Infusible, except by the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, 
t Fuses a little below red heat. 


KARATS IN THOUSANDTHS. 


FINENESS IN 

FINENESS IN 

Karats. 

Milliemes. 

Karats. 

Milliemes. 

2 4 

I . OOO 

I 2 

. 5 °° 

2 3 

• 95 8 

I I 

.458 

22 

• 9*7 

IO 

•417 

21 

• 8 75 

9 

•375 

20 

.833 

8 

•333 

19 

.792 

7 

. 292 

18 

• 75 ° 

6 

.250 

i 7 

. 708 

5 

. 208 

16 

.667 

4 

. 167 

15 

.625 

3 

• 1 25 

14 

•583 

2 

.083 

13 

• 54 2 

X 

.042 






















































LETTER ENGRAVING. 


180 

LETTER ENGRAVING. 

OR practice, not only in setting up the 
tool, but also in using it, the learner will 
find a square graver the best. A square 
graver is also the best for cutting coarse let¬ 
tering, such as is required upon door-plates, 
coffin-plates, satchel-plates, dog-collars, etc. 
For cutting upon articles of jewelry, watch 
cases, cane heads, and such like, where a 
smaller and lighter cut lettering is needed, a 
graver somewhat on the lozenge in shape 
should be used, the point of which, when the 
surplus steel is ground away, would be of 
about the same shape as a three-cornered file 
—the width of it across the face, from side 
to side, equalling the width of either face of 
its belly. 

In setting the face of any graver for ordi¬ 
nary use, grind it back so as to be at an an¬ 
gle of about sixty degrees from the line of 
the edge of its belly. A less acute angle can 
be given to a graver and fair work be done 
with it. This is sometimes a necessity aris¬ 
ing from the quality of the metal to be cut 
with it, or the temper of the tool used. In 
cutting such articles as solid-handled silver- 
plated table knives, stock mountings to re¬ 
volvers, plates made of rolled nickel or brass, 
a graver that will continually keep losing its 
point when its face is set at sixty degrees will 
often retain it with average pertinacity when 
its face is set at an angle of forty-five degrees. 

Good work cannot be done with a graver 
the face of which is set at a less acute angle 
than forty-five degrees. So much force has 
to be used in displacing the metal that the 
strokes cut with it, if so set, are apt to be 
“ burry ” instead of “ clean,” and their termi¬ 
nations in many instances, especially in cutting 
script lettering, are too blunt to be beautiful. 

In practicing it is not necessary to use a 
polished graver, but in actual business it is 
very often requisite. Silver and plated ware, 
both flat and hollow, are now so largely fin¬ 
ished with what is known as the “ satin finish ” 
that a polished graver is a tool always needed 
on the bench, for the strokes cut with the 
graver, the surfaces of the belly and the face 
of which are finished with no finer finish 
than an Arkansas oil-stone will give them, 
will not show effectively, the surface of the 
article having a dead style of finish given 
to it, demands that the work upon it, in 
order to be seen, must possess a finish which 
shall be. exactly opposite in kind, and so 
produce the desired effect by contrast—the 
sharper the contrast the better. 


The face, as well as both sides of the belly 
of the tool, should be polished when “ bright- 
cut ” work is to be done. 

The materials ordinarily used for the pur¬ 
pose of graver polishing are the same as used 
by watchmakers for polishing steel; chief 
among which are diamantine, Vienna lime, 
crocus and saphirine. In using any or all of 
them, a small quantity should be put upon a 
piece of wood, hard and close in texture, 
and finished down as flat as can be. In us¬ 
ing, moisten the material with a little alcohol 
and apply the piece of wood so charged to 
the graver and after the manner of a buff; 
or, reverse the process and apply the graver 
to the wood, in the same manner as though 
it were an oil-stone. 

In country towns it is not an easy thing 
to get any of the materials named, and so it 
may come “ handy ” to know of some means 
always available, if not quite so effective, for 
doing the work. A very fair polish can be 
put upon the belly and face of a graver in 
the following manner: Take an Arkansas 
oil-stone, clean the flattest part of it; then rub 
the point of a lead-pencil over the cleaned 
portion of the stone until the pores are well 
filled with the lead. When this is done, ap¬ 
ply the surfaces of the tool to be polished to 
the stone as though sharpening the graver 
upon it. The polish on the tool can be im¬ 
proved by mixing a little rouge with the lead 
upon the stone. The pencil should be one 
having a fine quality of lead in it—free from 
all traces of grit. 

It may be well to say a word right here 
about the quality of the various makes of grav¬ 
ers in the market. The Vautier and Baumel 
gravers are the cheapest—and they ought to 
be, for they are the poorest. Few of them 
will “ stand ” for any length of time, if used 
in cutting other metals than the soft white 
metal, of which hollow silver-plated ware is 
made, and silver. Experience has shown 
to the writer that the most reliable gravers 
for general use are those made by Renard, 
John Sellers, and Stubbs. Stubbs’ gravers are 
good for cutting German silver and brass, 
whether rolled or cast, and for all heavy 
work, such as door-plates, etc. The others 
named have no superiors for the ordinary 
run of letter engraving in demand by jewel¬ 
ers and silversmiths. Burt makes a good, 
fine-finished, and consequently high-priced 
graver. The next best gravers are also of 
the Burt make. 

The amount of pressure needful for the 



THE CARE OF THE EVES. 


propulsion of a graver in cutting script let¬ 
tering in silver is about from one to three 
ounces, according to the fineness or breadth 
of the stroke made with it. 

In holding a graver, it should be placed 
diagonally across the palm of the hand, with 
the bulb of the handle resting a trifle below 
its center. From the palm of the hand, and 
from no other source, should the graver re¬ 
ceive all the force necessary at any time in 
using it. The hand is steadied while cutting 
by the thumb resting upon the block, or the 
work in hand, as the case may be. The 
thumb forms a sort of side rest for the graver 
in its forward and backward motion, the 
thumb moving its position but little, excepting 
in cutting very extended straight lines. The 
fingers are gathered lightly around the blade 
of the tool, which in no case must be grasped 
and held down by them, as such action in¬ 
terferes, if not entirely prevents, the freedom 
of motion necessary to its successful use, 
making out of it either a scraper or a digger, 
and incision in metal cannot be made in free 
and graceful forms in any fashion, let alone 
with the perfection of “ cleanness ” and 
smoothness that must be given to the strokes 
in good letter engraving. 


THE CARE OF THE EYES. 

APTAIN MARRYAT has justly said: 
“ A man may damn his own eyes, but 
has no right to exercise a similar prerogative 
over other people’s visual organs; ” and 
while a Chicago contemporary does not pre¬ 
sume to “ damn ” at all, it proceeds in the 
following interesting article to endeavor to 
lead those who are suffering from remediable 
ocular defects—enduring the inconvenience, 
the headaches, and other afflictions which 
such defects occasion—to conduct, as it 
were, their visual organs through the courts 
of retributive justice, so that if they have 
given trouble, they may not only be sworn 
at, but also indicted, condemned to trial, 
and sentenced to proper correction. 

Throughout life, from youth to old age, 
there is a process of change occurring in the 
refractive media of all eyes, so that every one 
who attains to a ripe old age will, at some 
time or other during his or her existence, be 
a fit subject for the oculist—or, in other 
words, will need to wear glasses. In young 
people this change is usually gradual and 
unperceived, but from middle life onward its 
effects are plainly apparent. Those who have 


i 8 r 

normal vision while young will require glasses 
for reading when they have passed beyond 
the age of forty, and those who are near¬ 
sighted before the age is reached, need glasses 
in early life, if the degree of near-sightedness 
(myopia) be at all great, and yet they may 
be able to read perfectly well without glasses 
when fifty or even sixty years of age. Per¬ 
sons who are included in this category are 
apt to consider themselves as lucky excep¬ 
tions to general laws, and are usually very 
proud of their sharp sight. 

But not only does the eye undergo certain 
normal changes as age advances, but it may 
be abnormally formed; and hence optical 
defects are not only possible, but quite com¬ 
mon in infants. The eye is a camera, and, 
while it may be free from disease and per¬ 
fectly sound, still vision may be bad because 
the rays of light are not focussed upon the 
retina. Hence comes the necessity for wear¬ 
ing glasses, for, by placing suitable lenses be¬ 
fore these eyes, normal, distinct vision may 
—within certain limits—be obtained. It is 
not generally known that it is the exception, 
and not the rule, to find eyes that are perfect 
in shape, or, technically speaking, that are 
“ emmetropic.” Still it does not follow that 
all eyes that are not perfect in shape should 
have glasses fitted to them, for some errors 
of refraction do not interfere seriously with 
vision, and never give rise to disease or de¬ 
cided discomfort to the patient; but, as a 
rule, persons whose eyes are “ weak,” or who 
suffer from complaints similar to those which 
we shall soon consider, should present them¬ 
selves to some competent oculist for the 
detection and subsequent correction of any 
existing errors of refraction. Let me briefly 
say that by “ competent oculist ” is meant 
one who has not only a knowledge of the 
delicate mechanism of the eye, but of the 
other organs of the body as well; for abnor¬ 
malities and diseases of the eye link them¬ 
selves very closely to diseased conditions of 
other portions of the physical economy. 
Consequently, the competent oculist is a doc¬ 
tor of medicine, although he may devote him¬ 
self entirely to the study and practice of oph¬ 
thalmology. The jeweler is not always and 
the peddler is never a proper person to fit 
glasses ; and, while it is true that certain op¬ 
ticians are conscientious enough to send the 
party to an oculist when they find that they 
cannot correctly fit a patient with glasses, still 
there are opticians who are less conscientious, 
and who, lest the acknowledgment of inca- 




182 


THE CARE OF THE EYES. 


pacity might lower their standard in the pub¬ 
lic mind, or cause the loss of a customer, 
advise glasses which are not correct in every 
respect. Moreover, the oculist has means 
at his command for the detection of errors 
of refraction which cannot be applied by the 
optician, and possesses a knowledge of the 
proper correction of these errors which years 
of study and experience can alone bestow. 

There still exists quite a prejudice in the 
minds of many against the use of glasses; 
but why such prejudice should exist is very 
difficult of explanation on any other grounds 
than wilfulness and ignorance. All ophthal¬ 
mologists teach the great necessity of correct¬ 
ing errors of refraction by wearing proper 
glasses, and we shall herein endeavor to show 
some of the undesirable, and even portentous, 
results of permitting optical defects to go 
uncorrected. As a rule, glasses add nothing 
to the appearance of the wearer, and they 
are often a source of inconvenience, and, un¬ 
less there is a definite object to be attained 
by their use, patients are better without them ; 
but where they are indicated and advised by 
one competent to decide, neither vanity nor 
prejudice should prevent their being em¬ 
ployed. 

The purposes for which glasses should be 
prescribed may be briefly summed up thus: 
First, to prevent disease of the eyes from 
“ eye strain ” ; second, to aid in the curing 
of certain diseases and abnormal conditions, 
by releasing all strain and giving the eyes 
rest; third, to enable the patient to better 
pursue his avocation in life; and fourth, for 
his comfort and convenience. Our consid¬ 
eration of these items must necessarily be 
brief, and consequently imperfect. The first 
two are of paramount importance, and afford 
material for many chapters in the study of 
refraction. In general, it may be said tha': 
all errors of refraction which reduce the 
patient’s vision to any extent below the nor¬ 
mal, or which produce any marked change 
in either the near or the far points, require 
correction by the use of suitable glasses. 
These errors are: hyperopia , or far-sight; 
myopia , or near-sight; presbyopia , or old- 
sight ; and astigmatism, or irregular sight. 

Let us first consider the dangers from hy¬ 
peropia. There is a constant strain, known 
as “ an effort of accommodation,” upon every 
far-sighted eye when viewing both near and 
remote objects. This effort of accommoda¬ 
tion is a muscular exertion, and hence a tax 
upon the nervous system, and, if long con¬ 


tinued, results in more or less exhaustion. 
When far-sighted eyes are used for reading 
or near work for any considerable period of 
time, the effort required produces congestion 
and redness of the eyes, a larger flow of blood 
is sent to them, and hence there is an in¬ 
creased secretion of mucus, or “ watering of 
the eyes ” ; and, if the work be still continued, 
dizziness, headache, a feeling of sickness, or 
even actual vomiting, may be induced. But 
in far-sighted children another condition not 
infrequently arises as soon as they are made 
to apply themselves to books. A child be¬ 
gins to have a cast in the eye—that is, to 
squint, or look “cross-eyed.” At first the 
squint may be periodic, and appear only 
when close work is undertaken; but unless 
means are employed to prevent it, it soon 
becomes permanent. In the great majority 
of cases,^internal squint is due to hyperopia. 
An excessive effort of accommodation is 
always associated with increased conver¬ 
gence, and, as a far-sighted eye must always 
increase its accommodation in order to gain 
clear vision, it naturally squints inward. 
Nervous twitchings of the eyelids and other 
portions of the face are sometimes occasioned 
by hyperopia. Fortunately, the condition 
of hyperopia can be easily corrected by suit¬ 
able convex spherical glasses, and thus the 
conditions of weariness and exhaustion of 
the eyes, catarrh of the eyes, twitching, head¬ 
ache, etc., can be prevented ; or, where they 
have already occurred as consequences of 
long sight, they are usually at once and per¬ 
manently removed as soon as the hyperopia 
is corrected by appropriate glasses. Squint 
is also thus prevented by glasses, and in a 
certain number of cases where it is already 
manifested in children, it may be remedied 
by correcting the existing error of refraction. 

Myopia, or short sight, is often hereditary 
or congenital, but may be acquired from 
prolonged straining of the eye. This condi¬ 
tion is not infrequently the precursor of se¬ 
rious, and sometimes irremediable, impair¬ 
ment of vision, and hence skilled advice and 
proper glasses are of highest importance to 
the patient in preventing the accidents to 
which every myopic eye is liable. In high 
degrees of myopia there is an excessive de¬ 
mand made upon the muscles that converge 
the eyes, in the efforts made to keep them 
both fixed upon small objects held close to 
the face, and sometimes, being unable to 
withstand this strain, they give out, and one 
eye is then turned outward by the opposing 


THE CARE OF THE EYES. 


muscle, forming a divergent squint. Very 
serious intra-ocular changes, that are beyond 
the reach of therapeutic measures, are some¬ 
times occasioned by high degrees of myopia. 
Short-sighted eyes, above all others, require 
the most rigid hygiene. 

The vision should be rendered normal— 
except in very high degrees—by the use of 
concave spherical glasses, and everything 
which tends to congest the eyes—such as 
reading or writing in the recumbent or stoop¬ 
ing posture, or by faulty light—is to be most 
carefully avoided. 

Presbyopia, or the far sight of old age, is 
caused by a lack of power of accommoda¬ 
tion, and although distant vision remains un¬ 
impaired, there is a constant recession of the 
near point. This is first noticed by the pa¬ 
tient when he finds that he is obliged to hold 
his paper farther away from his eyes than 
before, and that the print is not so clear as 
formerly. Presbyopia is easily corrected by 
convex glasses for reading, and they should 
be employed as soon as the affection becomes 
manifest. It does not usually cause incon¬ 
venience until after the age of forty. Far¬ 
sightedness, when not corrected by appro¬ 
priate glasses, causes the condition of pres¬ 
byopia to manifest itself earlier in life than 
it does in eyes not thus affected, or in those 
in which the error has been properly cor¬ 
rected. 

In astigmatism, or irregular sight, the 
refraction differs in different portions or me¬ 
ridians of the eye, and the retinal image is 
thus confused. This condition is usually con¬ 
genital and may be hereditary; it is, how¬ 
ever, sometimes acquired, often occurring 
after inflammations of the cornea, and may 
even be occasioned by the use of improper 
glasses. It is a very common optical defect, 
and is corrected—according to the variety 
—either by cylindrical lenses or by combin¬ 
ing cylindrical with spherical lenses. Irreg¬ 
ular astigmatism cannot be entirely corrected. 
As astigmatism is either a variety of hyper¬ 
opia or of myopia, or a mixture of both, it 
can be productive of the train of symptoms 
already shown to be occasioned by these 
errors of refraction—such as headache, diz¬ 
ziness, nausea, and nervous irritability—and 
consequently, in all varieties of astigmatism, 
suitable glasses (preferably spectacles) should 
be worn continually, fcr both distant and 
near vision. 

A different refractive condition in the two 
eyes of the same person is quite common. 


183 

One eye may be correct, and the other long¬ 
sighted or short-sighted; or they may have 
different degrees of the same defect; or, 
again, one eye may be long-sighted and the 
other short-sighted. And since, in such 
cases, the condition of one eye can scarcely 
be improved by the same glass adapted to 
correct the error in the other, the vast im¬ 
propriety of selecting glasses at random from 
the counter of a dealer is plainly obvious. 
Both eyes must be tested separately, and 
fitted acordingly. Where it is known that 
presbyopia—the condition due to age—alone 
exists, patients may select their own glasses, 
for any given distance, according to the 
needs of convenience of the patient. As 
age advances, the amount of presbyopia in¬ 
creases, and new and stronger glasses will be 
from time to time required. 

Heterophoria, or weakness of some one 
or more of the ocular muscles, is very often 
a complication of some error of refraction. 
In this condition there is a continual strain 
upon the weaker muscle in order to do its 
work, and this alone will cause very many 
headaches, neuralgias, and general nervous 
symptoms. We have already considered this 
subject in cases where the irregular action of 
the muscles of the eyeball is sufficiently 
marked to produce squint, but ofttimes there 
is merely, a loss of function, which can be 
determined only by careful examination. 
This condition, which is termed muscular 
insufficiency, is overcome by correcting the 
refractive error, and combining the glasses 
thus required with properly selected and ap¬ 
plied prisms. 

Let us now look at some common troubles 
not generally known to be due to ocular de¬ 
fects. Not a small number of reflex neuroses 
are caused by these defects. Headaches 
which come on after sewing, reading, watch¬ 
ing a play, or otherwise using the visual or¬ 
gans in a special direction for a period of 
time, are usually the direct results of these 
defects. Neuralgia, dizziness, mental depres¬ 
sion, melancholia, chorea (St. Vitus’ dance), 
and even epilepsy, have been shown to be 
directly dependent, in certain cases, upon re¬ 
fractive errors for their causation. Out of 
nine cases of epilepsy in which there were 
optical defects, recently experimented upon, 
four cases were positively cured by correc¬ 
tion of the defects; two of the cases were 
entirely relieved for periods of four and six 
months respectively ; in another case the fits 
were greatly reduced in number during a 


SPECTACLES AND EYE-GLASSES. 


184 

given period of time, after the application of 
proper spectacles ; while two cases were not 
influenced by glasses. Recurring styes are 
not infrequently due to some optical defect, 
and when thus occasioned they are to be 
cured, not by pulling out the lashes, but by 
having the defect corrected. 

That by improving his defective vision 
one is enabled to pursue life’s duties to bet¬ 
ter advantage and with increased conven¬ 
ience to himself, need not be insisted upon. 
Some people go through much or all of life 
content—through ignorance or prejudice— 
without seeing but half of their surroundings, 
and often enduring the ills which we have 
seen to result from remediable ocular defects. 
To some people glasses are a revelation— 
revealing powers and beauties of vision never 
before known to exist. 


SPECTACLES AND EYE-GLASSES. 

ENSES are ground in the following man¬ 
ner : pieces of glass are cemented on 
tools of the required curve and ground with 
emery of different grades until very fine is 
used, and they are polished on cloth cemented 
to the tools, rouge or putty powder being 
used to give them the last finish. The tools 
are made of any required curve; say a five 
inch glass is wanted. Open a pair of dividers 
five inches, draw a curve with them, take a 
section of the curve, make a wooden pattern 
like a saucer with a peg on the under part to 
hold the tool by, then make another tool just 
the same, but on one you put the peg on the 
convex side, and on the concave side of the 
other get two pairs of castings made; get 
them turned out by a machinist to the shape 
of the curve, then with emery grind them 
together. One pair has to be finished with 
rough emery for roughing down the glass; 
the other pair finish off with fine emery for 
finishing and polishing on. Now, if you 
want glasses of five inch focus : convex pitch 
on pieces of flat glass until the convex tool 
is full; fasten to a block your concave tool, 
and before the pitch is too cold lay the con¬ 
vex tool with the glasses on it upon the con¬ 
cave tool. To get the glasses down even let 
the pitch get cold, then put on some rough 
emery in the concave tool and commence 
grinding. The emery will touch the glass 
on the edges, and keep on grinding until the 
glasses are of the same curve as the tool; 
then wash out all the rough emery and use 
some finer; then wash that off and repeat 


the process with fine or flour emery, and after 
grinding a little while the emery will get 
finer; then with a wet sponge wipe off half 
the emery and add a little water, and com¬ 
mence again. Get the glasses so fine and 
smooth that when you wet them they look 
like polished glass. Now dissolve a little 
pitch in turpentine and paint the tool with 
it; lay on your cloth, and by rubbing with 
your hand you will get the cloth to lay down 
flat to the tool. Let it dry for a few minutes 
and add rough or putty powder ; wet the cloth 
a little and commence polishing, which will 
be very quickly done if you have smoothed 
the glasses nicely. For concave glasses re¬ 
verse the process by pitching the glasses on 
the convex tool and let the convex tool be 
the grinder. Then reverse the glasses and 
grind the other side, and when done you will 
have glasses of five inch focus. 

If you took a ball of glass five inches in 
diameter, it would be five inches focus. Cy¬ 
lindrical glasses are made just the same way, 
but are ground on cylindrical shaped tools, 
and the focus or curves are measured in the 
same way by inches or meters. The latter 
is a good scale, but causes a great deal of, 
confusion and trouble because tools are made 
in this country and England by the inch 
scale, and if the English inch was divided by 
tenths and not by eighths, it would be very 
simple and convenient. The way of making 
odd glasses, say five and one-half inches, or 
any odd number that may be required, can 
be done by grinding a glass on one side on 
the five-inch tool, and the other on a six-inch 
tool, which would give you a glass of five 
and one-half inches focus. 

Periscopic glasses are concave on one side 
and convex on the other, and they are used 
to give more clearness of vision when looking 
obliquely through the glasses, and give a 
larger field of vision. In setting the glasses 
into the spectacle or eye-glass frame take a 
piece of thin brass or tin, make it the shape 
of the frame, but a trifle smaller, lay it on the 
glass, then with a glazier’s diamond cut round 
the pattern, break off the edges with a pair 
of pliers, and grind it to the required size on 
a grindstone, care being taken to get the 
center of the lens in the center of the frame. 

And this is very often the cause of a great 
deal of trouble to the seller and pain to the 
wearer. Be sure that your glasses are of 
exactly the same focus, and they vary con¬ 
siderably. Take a five-inch French glass and 
it will be different in power to a five-inch 




ETCHING FLUID FOR STEEL. 


i8 5 


English glass; and this is not the worst of 
it, but glasses of first quality will be different 
in power to second, second quality will be 
different from third, and so on. Therefore 
in matching glasses, except you keep a large 
stock of glasses of all qualities and numbers, 
it is better to put in a pair; if not, you can 
never match a glass, and the wearer will com¬ 
plain of not seeing as well with his spectacles 
since he had a new glass put in, and give him 
pain caused by seeing sometimes two objects, 
or seeing one like a shadow and the other 
one clear and sharp. 

Periscopic glasses are sometimes called 
meniscus, and the focus is determined by the 
following rule: 

Divide twice the product of the two radii by 
the difference of the radii. 

Thus: say a glass is ground on one side 
on a six-inch convex curve, and on the other 
side it is ground on a fifteen-inch concave 
curve, the focus would be twenty inches. 

Glasses are numbered as follows: 5, 6, 7, 
8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 
54, 30, 36, 42, 48, 60. Some English op¬ 
ticians call 60-inch focus No. 1 ; 48, No. 2, 
and so on. It is a very arbitrary rule for 
some to commence at 48 and call it No. 1, 
others again to commence at 42 and some 
at 36, and only use fourteen numbers, as fol¬ 
lows : 

Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 
12, 13, 14. 

Inches, 36, 30, 24, 20, 18, 16, 14, 12, 10, 

9 > 8 > 7 > 6 > 5 - 

A new scale is being introduced into oph¬ 
thalmology, and is giving to opticians no end 
of trouble. By the following rule it will be 
seen that one dioptric is equal to about a 
36-inch focus: 

Dioptrics —0.5, 0.75, 1., 1.25, 1.5, 1.75, 

2., 2.25, 2.5, 3., 3.25, 3.5, 3.75, 4., 4.5, 5., 

6., 7 *> 7 - 5 - 

Inches -72, 48, 36, 30, 24, 20, 18, 16, 

15. ! 3 > I2 > IO > 9 > 8 > 7 > 6 > S ' A , 5 - 

It is a very good scale, and calculations 
can be very easily made with it. One meter 
is the unit, and it is called one dioptric. 


TO WORK HARD STEEL. 

F steel is rather hard under the ham¬ 
mer when heated to the proper cherry- 
red, it may be covered with salt and ham¬ 
mered to about the shape desired. More 
softness can then be obtained, if required to 
give a further finish to the shape, by sprink¬ 


ling it with a mixture of salt, blue vitriol, sal- 
ammoniac, saltpeter and alum, made cherry- 
red again, sprinkled with this mixture, and 
hammered into shape. This process may 
be repeated until entirely finished. When 
ready, the steel is hardened in a solution of 
the same mixture. This method is recom¬ 
mended by prominent workers. 


SOLDERING CAST STEEL. 

HE material employed is pulverized 
white marble. The two pieces to be 
soldered are simply heated, rolled in the 
marble dust, then quickly placed one to the 
other and hammered. This recipe is by Mr. 
A. Fiala, an eminent mechanician of Prague, 
and was communicated by Mons. G. Ber¬ 
trand to the Revue Chronometrique. 


BRONZE COATING ON IRON, ETC. 

N order to cover articles of iron and 
brass with a durable, antique bronze 
coating, 100 grains of protosulphate of nickel 
and ammonia, 100 grains of hyposulphate 
of soda, and 50 grains sal-ammoniac are 
dissolved in 1 o quarts boiling water, and the 
well-cleaned metallic articles are laid in at 
once. After a few minutes they have as¬ 
sumed a handsome lustrous bronze color. 
By a prolonged exposure in the bath, sus¬ 
tained at a heat of from 70 0 to 8o°, cast or 
wrought-iron articles have become hand¬ 
somely coated with sulphide of nickel, but 
they must be made lustrous again by clean¬ 
ing, since they have become mat in color. 
The bath may be used again until its bluish- 
green color has disappeared as well as the 
hydroxide of iron. 


ETCHING FLUID FOR STEEL. 

E find the following praised highly for 
being an excellent etching fluid for 
steel: Mix one ounce of sulphate of copper, 
one-half ounce of alum, and one-half a tea¬ 
spoonful of salt reduced to powder, with 
one gill of vinegar and twenty drops of nitric 
acid. This fluid may be used for either 
eating deeply into the metal or for imparting 
a beautiful frosted appearance to the surface, 
according to the time it is allowed to act. 
Cover the parts necessary to be protected 
from its influence with beeswax, tallow, or 
some other similar substance. 









i 86 


EXCELLENT CEMENT. 


BRONZING IRON AND STEEL. 

IRST clean the piece to be treated in 
the usual manner, for which a bath of 
strong soda water is one of the quickest 
methods, and most thorough; then expose 
the piece to the action of vapors arising 
from a mixture of equal parts hydrochloric 
and nitric acids, temperature 550 to 6oo° 
F. When the piece has cooled, rub over 
with vaseline; heat until this begins ' to 
decompose, then allow to cool and repeat 
the dose of vaseline. Should the color 
appear darker than desired, mix acetic acid 
with the other acid in proportion to the 
change desired. 


PAINT FOR SHEET IRON. 

OOD varnish, one-half gallon; add red 
lead sufficient to bring to the consist¬ 
ency of common paint; then apply with a 
brush. This paint is applicable to any kind 
of iron work which is exposed to the 
weather, thoroughly protecting the metal 
from rust. 


PALE GOLD LACQUER. 

EST shellac (picked pieces), eight 
ounces; sandarac, two ounces; tur¬ 
meric, eight ounces ; annatto, two ounces ; 
dragon’s blood, one-fourth ounce; alcohol, 
one gallon. Mix, shake frequently, till all is 
dissolved, and the color extracted from the 
coloring matter, and then allowed to settle. 


PREVENTING RUST ON MACHINERY, 
ETC. 

HE following formula can be recom¬ 
mended for the prevention of rust on 
machinery. One ounce of camphor dis¬ 
solved in one pound of melted lard ; take off 
the scum and mix in as much fine black lead 
as will give it an iron color. Clean the 
machinery and smear it with this mixture. 
After about twenty-four hours, rub clean 
with soft linen rags. It will keep clean for 
months under ordinary circumstances. Iron 
and steel may be kept bright, even in the 
presence of dampness, by giving them a coat 
of chlorate of potash. 

Nuts are frequently rusted so tightly upon 
the screws that the wrench will not loosen 
them ; kerosene or naphtha, turpentine, even, 
will, in a short time, penetrate between the 
nut and stem. Next heat them in a fire, 
which will quickly sever them. In fact, 


kerosene is excellent for removing rust; leave 
the article for some time in it and the rust 
will come off easily. 

Cast-iron is best preserved by rubbing it 
with black lead. For polished work, varnish 
with wax dissolved in benzine, or add a little 
olive oil to copal varnish, and thin with 
spirits of turpentine. To remove deep- 
seated rust, use benzine and polish off with 
fine emery; or use tripoli, 2 parts; pulver¬ 
ized sulphur, 1 part. Apply with soft 
leather. Emery and oil is also very good. 


METAL LETTERS ON PLATE-GLASS. 

I T is often necessary to attach glass or 
ipetal letters to plate-glass. Use the 
following binder: Copal varnish, 15 parts; 
drying oil, 5 parts; turpentine, 3 parts; oil 
of turpentine, 2 parts; liquefied glue, 5 
parts. Melt in a water bath, and add 10 
parts slaked lime. 


TO PREPARE CHALK. 

ULVERIZE the chalk thoroughly, and 
then mix with clean rain-water, in 
proportions of two pounds to the gallon. 
Stir well, and let it stand for about two 
minutes. In this time the gritty matter will 
have settled to the bottom. Slowly pour 
the water into another vessel, so as not to 
stir up the sediment. Let stand until en¬ 
tirely settled, and then pour off as before. 
The settlings in the second vessel will be 
prepared chalk, ready for use as soon as 
dry. Spanish whiting, treated in the same 
way, makes a very good cleaning or polish¬ 
ing powder. Some watchmakers add a little 
crocus, and, we think, it is an improvement; 
it gives the powder a nice color at least. 


ALABASTER CEMENT. 

ELT alum and dip the fractured faces 
into it; then put them together as 
quickly as possible. Remove the exuding 
mass with a knife. 


EXCELLENT CEMENT. 

CEMENT for fastening glass upon 
wood is prepared by dissolving 1 part 
India rubber in 64 parts chloroform, to which 
16 parts mastic have been added. Let the 
mixture stand until dissolved. It is then ap¬ 
plied with a brush. 
















POWDERED GLASS. 


187 


SMOOTHING OIL-STONES. 

IL-STONES are apt to wear hollow, 
and it is necessary to smooth them. 
For this purpose take coarse emery and 
water upon a slate or marble slab, and with 
a circular motion grind the oil-stone. An¬ 
other very good way is to nail a piece of 
coarse emery paper upon a board, and treat 
it in the aforesaid manner. Paper is best, 
because the grains of emery remain station¬ 
ary, while, when loose upon a slab, they roll 
around, and therefore are less effective. 


TO CLEANSE BRUSHES. 

T HE best method of cleansing a watch¬ 
makers’ and jewelers’ brush is to wash 
it out in strong soda water. If the back is 
wood, favor that part as much as possible, 
for being glued, the water may loosen it. 


CEMENT FOR MEERSCHAUM. 

CEMENT for meerschaum can be 
made of quicklime mixed to a thick 
cream with the white of an egg. This 
cement will also unite glass or china. 


BENDING GLASS TUBES. 

ILL the tube with finely sifted sand, 
close both ends, and heat it over the 
flame of a Bunsen burner. It can thus 
easily be bent without losing its roundness 
at the elbow. 


TO DRILL ONYX. 

N order to drill onyx, the simplest meth¬ 
od is to use a diamond drill (cost about 
$2) with oil, turning the drill with the bow 
which gives the necessary back and forward 
motion. Another, but slower, way is to 
use a hollow iron wire with diamond pow¬ 
der. The wire is placed in the chuck of a 
lathe perpendicularly. It ought to run 
2,500 or 3,000 turns per minute. A good 
way of starting or countersinking the stone 
is by using iron wire turned into a little 
wheel or knob at the end, according to the 
size of the hole desired. This can only be 
used in a horizontal lathe. 


TO MAKE A HOLE IN GLASS. 

PREAD on thinly some wax after 
warming the glass. Remove the wax 
where you wish the hole to be made; with a 


piece of iron wire put on the spot a drop or 
two of fluoric acid and it will eat through 
the glass. If not sufficient, make a second 
or third application of the acid. After this 
has eaten quite through, it may be enlarged 
or shaped with a copper wire with rotten- 
stone and oil; or use dilute (1:5) sulphuric 
acid with the ordinary drill. When shaping 
or enlarging the hole, also apply this fluid to 
the file from time to time while using; when 
finished wash the latter well. 


ALLOY FOR MODELS. 

GOOD alloy for making working 
models is four parts copper, one part 
tin, and one-quarter part zinc. This is easily 
wrought. The hardness increases by doub¬ 
ling the proportion of the zinc. 


TRANSPARENT CEMENT. 

RDINARY cements generally leave 
yellowish traces which look disagree¬ 
able, especially with transparent objects. 
The following recipe, according to the Mon . 
des prod. Chim., makes a perfectly colorless 
varnish : Sixty grams chloroform are poured 
over 7.5 grams India rubber, cut into small 
pieces, and contained in a bottle which can 
be closed air-tight. When the India rubber 
has been dissolved thoroughly, 15 grs. mastic 
are added and digested for about 8 days 
until dissolved. The cement prepared in 
this manner is used like any other. 


POWDERED GLASS. 

OWDERED glass is largely taking the 
place of sand in the manufacture of 
sandpaper. It is readily pulverized by heat¬ 
ing it red hot and throwing it into cold 
water, the finishing being done in an iron 
mortar. By the use of sieves of different 
sizes of mesh the powder can be separated 
into various grades, from the finest dust to 
the very coarse, and these grades should be 
kept separate. A strong paper is tacked 
down and covered with a strong size or glue, 
and the coating covered with powdered 
glass of the desired fineness; when the glue 
is dry, the surplus glass is shaken or brushed 
off. Muslin is much better than paper and 
lasts much longer. 

















i88 


MAGNETIZED WATCHES. 


MAGNETIZED WATCHES. 

O ascertain if any part of a watch is mag¬ 
netized, take a small piece of iron wire 
(jewellers’ binding wire), attach it to a silk 
thread, and fasten the silk thread to a small 
brass rod, or a pegwood, and approach the 
part or parts suspected. If the iron is at¬ 
tracted or set in motion, magnetism is the 
cause, and the suspected piece is affected. 
Before making a test, remove the watch move¬ 
ment from the case; if this contain case 
springs, try these separately, as in most in¬ 
stances case springs are affected by magnet¬ 
ism, while parts of the movement are not. It 
is also advisable, in testing a watch move¬ 
ment, to take the movement apart and test 
the pieces separately. The parts most likely 
to be affected are the balance, the balance 
spring, and the fork. In some instances, 
very rare, however, every part of the move¬ 
ment is affected. 

PROTECTIONS, REMEDIES, AND PREVENTA- 
TIVES. 

There are methods and means for protect¬ 
ing watches from magnetism, remedying the 
evil after they have become affected, and for 
preventing them from being magnetized. 
The present article will deal with the second 
proposition, as a debate of all three would 
make it too lengthy for these Workshop 
Notes. 

1. The employes around electric-light sta¬ 
tions practice what might be called an “ em¬ 
pirical ” method with the “ turnips” they wear 
in the shop. They hang the watch by the 
pendant at the end of a stiff cord, twist the 
cord tightly, then, holding the upper end of 
the cord in one hand, let the watch hang near 
the pole piece of a powerful dynamo. Hold 
ing it still with the other hand for a moment, 
to let the magnetism get “ soaked in,” they 
“ then let her spin,” and as the string gradu¬ 
ally untwists, slowly walk away, removing the 
whirling watch further and further from the 
source of magnetism. The dose is repeated 
whenever the watch shows signs of ailments. 

2. When the work of demagnetizing is to 
be performed on a watch of good quality, it 
is necessary to have three or four magnets of 
different sizes, also a good horse-shoe mag¬ 
net for recharging, for these straight magnets 
soon lose strength. A piece of bar steel of 
the required size, hardened first, and then 
charged by the horse-shoe magnet, answers 
the purpose, or an old worn-out round or 
square file, or stump of an old graver, will do 


equally well, and save the trouble of harden¬ 
ing. The size of the magnet used must be 
determined by the size of the article operated 
on. Take a watch-balance, for instance— 
which is one of the most troublesome things 
to treat. Take a magnet about three inches 
long and one-quarter inch square. It will be 
found that polarity is situated principally in 
the neighborhood of the arms, and these are 
the points to be first attacked. Hang the 
balance by its rim on a piece of brass wire, 
and approach the magnet toward the rim in 
the direction of one of the bars. If it should 
be attracted toward the magnet, try the other 
pole, and it will be found to repel. Now 
take the balance in your hand and bring the 
rebelling pole of the magnet in momentary 
contact with the balance at the point tried, 
then test it with a minute fragment of small 
iron binding wire, as directed in the introduc¬ 
tory ; if still magnetic, bring the magnet in 
contact again, and so on—trying after each 
contact—till the magnetism is entirely out at 
that point. Suspend the balance on the brass 
wire, as before, and proceed to try the rim at 
the point where the second arm comes, and 
the same with the third. Having expelled 
the magnetism at these three points, there 
will be but little remaining in the balance. 
However, try it carefully all round, when sev¬ 
eral places will probably be found retaining 
sufficient magnetism to pick up a small frag¬ 
ment of iron. These must all be treated in 
the manner before described; but when the 
magnetism is very feeble, a smaller magnet 
must be used, for if the magnet is too power¬ 
ful, the article operated upon discharges what 
little remains, and, before contact can be 
broken, begins to be charged again by the re¬ 
verse pole. After having operated success¬ 
fully on the other portions of the balance, it 
frequently happens that it has become slightly 
charged again by one of the arms; try the 
pole, as before, and a few contacts, some¬ 
times but one, of one of the smaller magnets 
will suffice. 

A little patience is required, for it is often 
twenty minutes or more before the desired 
end is accomplished. After treating a bal¬ 
ance, always try it whether it is in poise. 
The balance spring stud, which is usually 
found to be charged when the balance is so, 
is easily treated. Try the poles, and a few 
contacts will draw all the magnetism out of 
one end, when so little will be found remain¬ 
ing in the other that one touch of the other 
pole will usually be sufficient. Even the bal- 



THE PENDULUM AND ITS LAWS OF OSCILLATION. 


189 


ance spring may be successfully treated, 
though so strongly charged as to be “ feath¬ 
ered ” with iron filings after being immersed 
in them. 

A good way to try the polarity of many 
pieces is to suspend the article, by means of 
a particle of wax, to a piece of the finest silk. 
Steel filings, or fragments of chain wire, should 
on no account be used for testing ; for if not 
magnetic to begin with, they speedily become 
so by contact with the article under treatment. 
Even with soft iron, it is well to occasionally 
charge the fragment you are testing. 


THE PENDULUM AND ITS LAWS OF 
OSCILLATION. 

ISTORY furnishes us with the informa¬ 
tion that Galileo in 1542, while in the 
cathedral at Pisa, observed the oscillations 
of a lamp which had been accidentally set 
in motion. He was struck with the apparent 
measured regularity of its vibrations, and 
tested this observation by comparing these 
oscillations with his own pulse. Galileo there 
invented the simple pendulum as a means 
of measuring short intervals of time. But 
for many years the pendulum was used with¬ 
out the clock movement, and astronomers 
counted the oscillations performed in a given 
time to measure the periods of celestial phe¬ 
nomena. 

THE THEORETICALLY PERFECT PENDULUM. 

In describing the pendulum I will first 
begin with a theoretically perfect pendu¬ 
lum, which would consist of a heavy mole¬ 
cule suspended at the extremity of a perfectly 
flexible cord, and oscillating in a vacuum. 
This ideal pendulum, of course, could not 
exist, but to demonstrate the simple pendu¬ 
lum, we will use a small metal ball suspended 
by a silk thread ; if this freely-suspended ball 
is drawn from the vertical and allowed to 
oscillate, these oscillations will gradually di¬ 
minish in extent on account of the earth’s at¬ 
traction, producing what are called long and 
short arcs. The function of the clock move¬ 
ment proper, besides registering the time and 
number of oscillations on the dial, is to fur¬ 
nish to the pendulum the small amount of 
impulse that is necessary to carry the same 
in its excursion from the vertical line up¬ 
ward, so it will return each time to the orig¬ 
inal point of starting and thus overcome the 
influence of gravity, and add enough force 
in its descent toward the vertical to maintain 


a uniform arc of oscillation to the required 
number of degrees. The oscillations of 
the pendulum were thought and affirmed 
by Galileo to be made in the same inter¬ 
val of time, whether the arcs were long or 
short. 

That there is a difference, although very 
slight, between long and short arcs, where 
the distance passed over is not too great, is 
nevertheless true; and it was not till 1658 
that Huyghens discovered and proved that 
long arcs required more time than short arcs 
to perform the oscillations of the same vibrat¬ 
ing length of pendulum. I will add here, as 
the question is often asked, what constiutes 
the length of a pendulum. It is the distance 
from the point of suspension to the center 
of oscillation. This point is, in theory, very 
near the center of gravity of the pendulum, 
and it is described as being just below the 
gravity point. In order to describe the cen¬ 
ter of oscillation more clearly, I will make 
this simple illustration: 

If a blow is struck with a club and the 
impingement takes place beyond the point 
of concussion, the blow is partially inflicted 
on the hand; and the same result is expe¬ 
rienced if the impingement takes place be¬ 
tween the hand and the point of concussion, 
only in a reversed manner. The full force 
of the blow is obtained only when the exact 
point of concussion meets the object. Now, 
it is true that the center of oscillation in the 
pendulum is identical with the point of con¬ 
cussion in the club, and the time-producing 
qualities of a pendulum depend entirely on 
the above mentioned oscillating point. 

THE LAWS CONTROLLING THE PENDULUM. 

I will first call your attention to the laws 
of motions controlling the simple pendulum, 
and will refer to the cycloidal pendulum later. 
First, the pendulum is a falling body, and 
is controlled by laws governing such a body, 
and when at rest points directly toward the 
center of the earth. Next, the square of the 
time of oscillation is directly as its length, 
and inversely as the earth’s attraction. 

For instance, a pendulum vibrating sec¬ 
onds at the level of the sea in the latitude 
of New York city, would be 39.10153 inches, 
and a pendulum vibrating two seconds in 
the same location would be the square (of 
the time) .or two seconds, which squared 
would be four, multiplied by the length of 
the one second, 39.10153 pendulum, which 
is equal to 156.4 inches, something over 13 




CYCLOIDAL PENDULUM. 

/ 


190 

feet long. This rapid increase in length for 
a comparatively small change in the time of 
oscillation has resulted in fixing two seconds 
as the limit for any precision pendulum, as 
beyond this point the instrumental errors 
would be increased in the same ratio and 
would be difficult to overcome. The great 
Westminster pendulum vibrates in two sec¬ 
onds, and is probably the most accurately 
compensated long pendulum in the world. 
The correction for errors of lateral and cub¬ 
ical dilatation, barometrical error, long and 
short arcs of oscillation, are all reduced to a 
minimum. 

As we have said so much about seconds, 
it might be in order to say there are two * 
kinds, solar and sidereal, and they differ from 
each other in length. 

The interval of time we call a second is 
reduced from the solar day, which is the 
time between two successive returns of the 
sun to the same meridian, and this interval 
divided into 86,400 parts. These solar days 
are not equal , but are made so by the daily 
equation of time added to or subtracted from 
the apparent solar day. 

The sidereal day is the interval between 
two successive returns of a fixed star to the 
same meridian, and is 3 minutes, 56.5 sec¬ 
onds shorter than the solar day, and this day 
divided into hours, minutes, and seconds fur¬ 
nishes us with the sidereal seconds. The 
sideral day represents the time of the rotation 
of the earth on its axis, and is the most 
accurate observation of time that can be 
made, as it requires no equation, and has not 
changed as much as one-hundredth part of 
a second in over two thousand years. As¬ 
tronomers use astronomical clocks reading 
24 hours on the dial, with pendulums vibrat¬ 
ing sidereal seconds, and by this time only 
do they find and locate celestial bodies. 

ATTRACTION OF GRAVITATION. 

Another law governing the pendulum is 
this: The action of gravity or the mutual 
attraction between bodies varies with their 
masses, and inversely as the square of their 
distances. Following from this, a pendulum 
will vibrate seconds only in a given place. 
Our standard of measurement is taken from 
a pendulum vibrating seconds in a vacuum 
at the level of the sea. It also follows that 
the further a pendulum is removed from the 
center of the earth the less it will be attracted 
in its descent toward the vertical. This ex¬ 
plains why a pendulum loses on being trans¬ 


ferred from the sea level to the mountain, or 
from one of the earth’s poles toward the 
equatoi, as the earth is a spheroid slightly 
flattened at the poles. 

A very interesting experiment can be made 
to show the influence of mutual attraction 
between masses. Take two well-regulated 
astronomical clocks with second pendulums, 
place them side and side, and cause each 
pendulum to oscillate simultaneously on the 
same side of the vertical; the pendulums will 
oscillate to the right together, and to the left 
for a time together, then they will change so 
as to oscillate in opposite directions, and will 
never depart from this motion. Another rea¬ 
son why a pendulum loses on being trans¬ 
ferred to the equator lies in the fact that the 
rotation of the earth gives rise to centrifugal 
force at its surface. This, being zero at the 
poles, gradually increases to a maximum at 
the equator; and, as it acts in opposition to 
the force of gravity, it counteracts a gradu¬ 
ally increasing proportion of this force which 
shows in the time of oscillation. The rota¬ 
tion of the earth on its axis also has another 
effect upon the oscillation of the pendulum, 
as you have just seen by the demonstration 
of the pendulum of Foucault by Prof. K. 
Ellicott. The error caused by the tendency 
of the pendulum to oscillate in one given 
plane is reduced to a minimum by the use 
of short arcs of oscillation, and is of very lit¬ 
tle importance in comparison with other er¬ 
rors. _ 

CYCLOIDAL PENDULUM. 

HE arcs of oscillation of any ordinary 
simple pendulum are a part of a circle 
with the point of suspension as a center. 

Now, a pendulum producing isochronal 
oscillations, namely, producing unequal arcs 
in equal time is called cycloidal , because the 
center of oscillation must describe a cycloidal 
path during each excursion on either side of 
the vertical line. 

This curve is one of the most interesting 
of any known, both in respect to its geo¬ 
metrical properties and connection with fall¬ 
ing bodies, and is described in this manner: 

If a circle roll along a straight line on its own 
plane, a point on its circumference will de¬ 
scribe a cun>e which is called a cycloid. The 
peculiar value of this curve in relation to the 
pendulum will be better shown by inverting 
a cycloid curve. 

The time of a body descending from a 
point of rest which we will call A to the 




CYCLOIDAL PENDULUM. 


191 


lowest point of the curve at B will be the 
same from whatever point it starts. In other 
words, a pendulum will fall from A to the 
lowest point B of the curve in precisely 
the same time it would from a point C 
lying between A and B , which is, say, about 
half the distance. Following from this, a 
cycloidal pendulum produces unequal arcs 
in equal time or isochronism. The extreme 
mechanical difficulty of executing a pendu¬ 
lum that will describe a cycloidal path dur¬ 
ing each excursion has led horologists to orig¬ 
inate many ingenious devices to accomplish 
this end. The pendulum described here 
is constructed so as to cause the center of 
oscillation to move in a cycloidal path, by 
coming in contact with cycloid cheeks near 
its point of suspension, but the effects of 
moisture, friction, dilatation and adhesion of 
contact against these cheeks would in time 
give rise to errors as great as those sought to 
be overcome. We therefore must make 
efforts in another direction. 

The best method of to-day for producing 
isochronism is to cause the arc of oscillation 
to be as short as possible, and also have the 
suspension spring of a given length and given 
strength in proportion to the length and 
weight of the pendulum. Then we will only 
have to deal with the molecular arrangement 
of the spring, which is constantly changing; 
but this error is very small and exceedingly 
regular. 

The length of the pendulum rod is just 
double the diameter of the generating circle. 
Now, from relations of parts of the cycloid, 
it is shown that the time of falling down the 
semi-cycloid is to the time of fall through 
the diameter of the generating circle as a 
quadrant is to a radius. 

THE BAROMETRICAL ERROR. 

A pendulum is affected by the density of 
the atmosphere, but to a degree that would 
only be of importance in a precision time¬ 
piece, where all the errors are reduced to a 
minimum. An increase of density of the air 
is equivalent to reducing the action of gravity , 
while the inertia of the moving body remains 
the same. The rule is, that the velocity of 
the pendulum varies directly as the force of 
gravity and inversely as the inertia, and it 
follows then that an increase of density di¬ 
minishes the velocity and shortens the time 
of oscillation, causing the clock to gain time. 
The barometrical error can be reduced to 
within three to four tenths of a second in 


twenty-four hours for each inch rise or fall 
of the barometer. Short arcs of oscillation 
are also essential in reducing the barometrical 
error. An apparatus is sometimes attached 
to the pendulum to assist in reducing this 
error. 

THE COMPENSATED PENDULUM. 

Bodies increase in volume with an eleva¬ 
tion of temperature and diminish when it 
falls. The pendulum then changes its di¬ 
mensions with every variation of temperature, 
and the same is the case with all other parts 
of the machine. 

The elongation of a body in any one direc¬ 
tion by heat is known as its linear dilatation , 
and its increase in volume, that is, in all three 
directions, is the cubical dilatation; this 
depends on its linear dilatation in length, 
breadth, and thickness. 

The result to be obtained in a pendulum 
by compensation is to so construct the same 
that the center of oscillation will always be 
in the same point. It is evident that heat 
lowers this point and cold raises it, and, as 
we said before, that the time-producing qual¬ 
ities of the pendulum depend on this oscillat¬ 
ing point, and only by compensation is the 
desired effect obtained. 

I will show you two of the best methods 
of producing compensation, and begin first 
by using two metals. The principle under¬ 
lying this method is the unequal expansion 
of different metals in the same temperature. 
This furnishes us with the first step toward 
compensation. 

Let us take a steel rod of the length ar¬ 
rived at by calculation, with a nut and screw 
on the lower end; resting on this nut is a 
brass collar with a groove cut in the top. 
Here is a rolled and drawn zinc tube of a 
calculated length and thickness in proportion 
to the main rod. This zinc tube is drawn 
on over the main rod, and rests on the brass 
collar at the lower end and at the upper end 
of the zinc tube; and resting on the same is 
an iron collar into which is firmly screwed 
an iron tube which is slipped on over the zinc 
tube, and at the lower end of this iron tube 
is attached the weight or bob. It will be 
seen that this main rod lengthens with heat, 
and as it lowers, the zinc tube which sur¬ 
rounds it lowers also ; but the upper end of 
the zinc being free, and this metal possessing 
greater linear dilatation, moves upwards on 
the main rod, and with it draws up the iron 
tube that surrounds the zinc and carries with 


192 


CYCLOIDAL PENDULUM. 


it the weight or bob. The upward dilatation 
of the zinc tube is just sufficient to overcome 
the downward dilatation of the main rod, 
thus keeping the center of oscillation in the 
same point. In order to construct a com¬ 
pensated pendulum of this kind it is necessary 
to have the proper proportions of one metal 
to the other; and besides this, corrections 
are made from actual tests in different de¬ 
grees of temperature. 

The principal objection to this kind of 
compensation is that metals expand and con¬ 
tract by infinitesimal waves or jumps, prob¬ 
ably owing to the molecular friction of the 
metals, and this is most apparent in zinc, 
owing to its crystalline formation; and this 
metal is useless unless carefully drawn and 
prepared before using for the purpose in 
question. 

THE MERCURIAL COMPENSATION. 

This pendulum is constructed in the fol¬ 
lowing manner: A steel rod of the calcu¬ 
lated length and diameter is selected, and at 
its lower end is firmly attached a brass stir¬ 
rup, into which is placed and secured from 
one to four glass jars containing mercury. 
If one jar is used, the volume must be suffi¬ 
cient to allow its cubical dilatation to raise the 
center of oscillation just as the longitudinal 
dilatation of the rod has lowered this point; 
and if four jars are used, their diameters 
shall be reduced to the point that the four 
will contain the volume of the one jar, and 
be filled each to the same level as it rose in 
the single jar. This represents more exposed 
surface to the changing temperatures and 
improves the conductibility of the mercury , 
causing the compensation to respond more 
promptly to sudden changes. The four-jar 
compensation is the most difficult to con¬ 
struct, but when well made and carefully ad¬ 
justed is exceedingly satisfactory, and has 


the preference in seconds pendulums when 
greater accuracy is required. 

THE SEISMIC ERROR. 

This uncontrollable error is caused by earth 
waves, and may occur at any time. One pe¬ 
culiarity is, that many hours elapse before 
this error shows in the time of the instru¬ 
ment. This error may not be suspected un¬ 
til compared by transit observations. 

The time it takes to develop this error is 
probably due to the molecular disturbances 
and re-arranging of particles that is taking 
place in the mercury used for compensation. 
The most accurately compensated pendulums 
have been known to vary several seconds in 
a day. I remember while in Geneva in 1872 
that twice in one summer the standard pen¬ 
dulum of the Cantonal Observatory varied 
once seven and one-half seconds, and at an¬ 
other time five seconds in twenty-four hours ; 
at that time it was not well understood what 
caused these sudden variations in a pendu¬ 
lum having a known daily equation. But 
later experiments have shown this error to 
be caused by seismic waves. 

From the simple observation of the lamp 
swinging from the roof of the cathedral at 
Pisa, more than three hundred and forty 
years ago, has grown the thought included 
in the foregoing laws. The laws of inverse 
squares and mutual attraction as shown in 
the simple pendulum, the properties of the 
cycloid and cycloidal pendulum, the influ¬ 
ence of the linear and cubical dilatation, the 
influence of atmospheric pressure on the pen¬ 
dulum and the centrifugal force from the 
revolution of the earth on its axis, and by 
reducing all these errors to a minimum we 
are furnished with an instrument that per¬ 
forms its work with as much accuracy as 
any piece of mechanism ever produced by 
man. 



INDEX TO HOROLOGY 


A 

Acceleration, 42. 

Action of the escapement, 9. 

“Adjusted,” meaning of, 90. 

Adjusted watch in order, put an, 91. 

Adjusting of large and small watches, 64. 

Adjustment to isochronism,69. 

Annealing and hardening, 70. 

new method for, 31. 

Arbor, art of turning, 97. 
the barrel, 21. 

Attraction of gravitation, 76. 

Audible unrolling of mainspring, 62. 

B 

Balance, 45, 72. 

Balance, compensated, 27. 

expansion and contraction of, 46. 

importance of the proportions of a watch, 34. 

pivot, broken, 76. 

pivot, centering a, 24. 

pivots, length of, 10. 

spring, centering the, 10. 

spring, lengthening a, 73. 

spring, length of, 60. 

spring, the, 30. 

spring, to flatten a, 84. 

staff, centering a, 24. 

staff, measure for the length of, 85. 

staff, pivoting a, 39. 

staff, replace a, 44, 78. 

vibration, observe, 29. 

Balances, sizes and weights of, 47. 

Banking error, 89. 

pin, fit in, 50. 

Barometrical error, 79. 

Barrel arbor, the, 21. 

relation of mainspring to, 27. 
take down and repair the, 11. 

Benzine in watch cleaning, 84. 
jars, improved, 57. 

Blue for steel, transparent, 55. 

Bouchon, fit a, 49, 84. 

Bow, drilling, 59, 62. 

Breguet spring, 71. 

Broach a hole vertically, 56. 

Broaches, polishing, 29. 

solder broken, 55. 

Broken balance pivot, 76. 
pillar screw, 58. 
screws, 44, 54, 55. 

Brush, care of the, 57. 

Burnisher, make a, 29. 

the use of the cutting, 96. 

Bush, fit center, 49. 


C 

Cap jewel, care in repairing, 97. 
to fix, 60. 

Center bush, fit in the, 49. 

Centering a balance staff, 24. 

balance pivot, 24. 
the balance spring, 10. 

Center pivot, repair, 50. 
staff, correct, 32. 
wheel, bad uprighting, 10. 

Chronometer, marine, 51. 

Chucks, care of, 58. 

Clean a mainspring, good way to, 72. 
a nickel movement, 28. 
a watch, 7. 
a watch case, 59. 

watches with cyanide of potassium, 7-- 
Cleaning of a watch, 5. 
pith, 63. 

Click-work, lubricate, 92. 

repair a cheap, 61. 

Clock repairing, 39. 

Clocks, motive power in, 92. 

Close observation necessary, 74. 

Club teeth, 86. 

tooth lever escapement, 4. 

Collet, fasten spring on, 54. 

Color iron and steel brown, 84. 

Common hand screw plates, 88. 

Compensated balance, 27. 

Compensation, over-active, 29. 

pendulums, rules governing, 81. 
Composition file, make a, 62. 

Conical pivots, 74. 

Corals, clean, 104. 

Crutch, pendulum, 42. 

Curb pins, influence of, 61. 

Cutting of hollows, etc., 89. 

Cyanide of potassium, to clean watches with, 7. 
Cylinder escapement, inspection of the, 5. 
pivoting a, 18. 
pivots, 86. 

pivots, size of the, 30. 
wheel, straighten, 85. 


D 

Damaskeening. See Spotting. 
Depthings, inspect, 97. 

rules for, 96. 

Depthing tool, use, 30. 

Depths, doubtful and invisible, 10. 
visible, 10, 97. 

Development of the lathe, 101. 
Dial feet, fit the, 50. 



194 


INDEX TO HOROLOGY. 


Dial, mounting a, 20. 
reduce, 54. 

repaint the hours on, 103. 

Dials, bleach watch, 43. 
repairing, 104. 
watch, 31. 

Diamond drills and gravers, mount, 43. 
hie, 63. 

Diamond-point tool, make a, 59. 

Drill hard steel, 85. 

make a good, 58, 62. 
temper, 58, 59. 

Drills, steel for, 58. 

Drilling bows, 59. 

Drop in the lever escapement, too much, 23. 
Dust pipes, 20. 

E 

Ease an index, 54. 

End-shake, freedom and, 9. 

Escapement, action of the, 9. 

club-tooth lever, 4. 
inspection of the cylinder, 5. 
lever, 2. 

proportion of, 85. 

Examine a watch, 102. 

- Geneva movement, 9. 

Examining watches, repairing and, 7 - 
Expansion and contraction of balances, 46 . 
Eyes, care of the, 92. 

F 

File, diamond, 63. 

make a composition, 62. 
make a pivot, 60. 

Files, renew old, 53. 

sharpen fine, 56. 

Final review, 102. 

Fit a bouchon, 84. 

in a center bush, 49. 
in a new scape wheel, 90. 
in a scape pinion, 99. 
in banking pins, 50. 

Flat polish, 53. 

Flatten a balance spring, 84. 

-Foot wheel, 57. 

Forks, long or short, 33. 

Freedom and end-shake, 9. 

Frosting. See Spotting. 

Frosting of wheels, handsome, 83. 

Functions of inertia, 37. 

G 

Gauges, about, 69. 

Geneva movement, examine a, 9. 

Gild steel, 44. 

Gold spring, harden, 84. 

-Gravers, temper, 53. 

Gravitation, attraction of, 76. 


H 

Hairspring, put in a, 48. 

Hands, motion work and, 9. 

Hand turning in watch work, 98. 
Hardening, annealing and, 70. 

delicate steel parts, 82. 
gold springs, 84. 
Heavy wheels, 37. 


Hollows, the cutting of, 89. 

Hook in the mainspring, 22. 

I 

Impulse, magnitude of pallet, 55. 
Index, ease the, 54. 

Inertia, 37. 

Influence of curb pins, 61. 
Inventions in horology, 103. 
Isochronism, 35, 59. 

adjustment to, 69. 


J 

Jewel pin into an American watch, put a, 21. 
Jewels in watches, 96.' 
screwed, 96. 
set, 23. 

K 

Knack of pivoting, 92. 

Knife suspension, 31. 

L 

Lathe, development of the, 101. 

Lengthening a balance spring, 73. 

Length of balance spring, 60. 

Lever, correct length of, 28. 

Lever escapement, 2. 

the club-tooth, 4. 
too much drop in the, 23. 
Light wheels, errors of, 38. 

Lockings, pallet, 63. 

Long or short forks, 33. 

Lubricate click-work, etc., 92. 

Lubricating oil, 53. 

M 

Magnetized watches, 188. 

Mainspring, audible unrolling of, 62. 

good way to clean a, 72. 
hook in the, 22. 
manipulate the, 31. 
relation of barrel to, 27. 
watch, 77. 
winder, use of, 28. 

Marine chronometer, 51. 

Meaning of “ adjusted,” 90. 

of pitch-circle, 27. 

Measure for the length of balance staff, 85. 
Mem., 43. 

Motion work and hands, 9. 

Motive force in watches, 75. 

power in clocks, 93. 

Movement, clean a nickel, 28. 

N 

Nickel movement, clean a, 28. 

O 

Oil, fine lubricating, 53. 

how to supply, 54, 55. 

Oiling pallets of levers, 29. 

Over-active compensation, 29. 

Over-banking, 25, 43. 


INDEX TO HOROLOGY. 


P 

Pallet action, bad, 61. 

impulse, magnitude of, 55. 
lockings, 63. 

Pallets and their functions, 21. 
make, 43. 
oiling, 29. 

Patent lever watches, repairing, 67. 

Play of train-wheel pivots, 10. 

Pendulum crutch, 42. 

wood rod and lead bob for, 73. 

Pendulums, 79, 189. 

rules governing compensation, 81. 

Pillar screw, broken, 58. 

Pinion, harden a, 52. 

polish the fourth, 62. 
repair a, 85. 

Pitch-circle, meaning of, 27. 

Pivot, broken balance, 76. 

centering a balance, 24. 
file, make a, 60. 
size of the cylinder, 30. 
straighten a, 60. 

Pivoting a balance staff, 39. 
a cylinder, 18. 
the knack of, 92. 

Pivots, conical, 74. 

cylinder, 86. 
length of balance, 10. 
play of train-wheel, 10. 
polish, 60. 

Polish a wheel, 36. 
flat, 53. 
steel, 29, 52. 

Polishing broaches, 29. 

fourth pinions, 62. 
leathers, cleanse, 50. 

P 

Regulate a fine watch, 90. 

Relation of mainspring to barrel, 27. 

Remove a broken screw, 55. 

Renew old files, 53. 

Repaint the hour on dial, 102. 

Repair cheap clocks, 61. 
a pinion, 85. 
a Yankee clock, 82. 

English patent lever watches, 67. 

Repairing and examining watches, 7. 
clock, 39. 
tools used in, 16. 

Replace a balance staff, 44, 78. 

Review, final, 102. 

Roller jewels, tool for fastening, 64. 

Rounding-up tool, 74. 

Ruby pin, fitting in the, 50. 
reset, 54. 

Ruby pins, shape of, 21. 

Rules governing compensation pendulums, 81. 

S 

Scape wheel, loss of, 89. 

put in a new, 24, 90. 
setting of, 26. 

Scape wheels of Swiss watches, 78. 
straighten, 53. 

Screw, broken pillar, c8. 
dies, 88. 

Screwed jewels, 96. 

Screw plate, clear, a stopped hole in a, 89. 


Screw plates and taps, 88. 

common hand, 88. 
fine threaded, 88. 

Screws, broken, 44, 54, 55. 

Screw thread, cut, 30. 

Screw to the fan of a music box, 6:. 

Setting of scape wheel, 26. 

Shape of ruby pins, 21. 

Sharpen cutting tools, 44. 

Sharpen fine files, 56. 

Shellac for use, prepare, 62. 

in horology, use of, 56; 

Size of the cylinder pivot, 30. 

Sizes and weights of balances, 47. 
Smoothing. See Spotting. 

Snailing. See Spotting. 

Solder a stay spring, 60. 

broken broaches, 55. 

Speed of different timepieces, 30. 

Spotting, 103. 

Spring, Breguet, 71. 

flatten a balance, 84. 
lengthening a balance,, 73. 
on collet, fasten, 54. 

Springs, harden gold, 84. 

throw away bad, 89. 

Staff, centering, 24. 

correct the center, 32. 
make, 23. 

measure for the length of balance, 85. 
take out temper of, 55. 

Stay spring, solder, 60. 

Steel, drill hard, 85. 

Steel for drills, 58. 

Steel, gild, 44. 

Steel parts, hardermg, 82. 

Steel, polish, 29, 52. 
temper, 58. 

transparent blue for, 55. 
write upon, 55. 

Stoning. See Spotting. 

Stop-work indispensable, 78. 

Stop-work, test the, 11. 

Straighten a pivot, 60. 

scape-wheel, 53, 85. 

Stud, movable, 63. 

Suspension, knife, 31. 

T 

Take out temper of staff, 55. 

Taps, screw plates and, 88. 

Temper, draw, 53. 

drill, 58, 59. 
gravers, 53. 
of staff, take out, 55. 
steel, 58. 

Throw away bad springs, 89. 

Time a watch, 44, 65, 97. 

Timepieces, speed of different, 30. 

Tool for fastening roller jewels, 64. 

Tool, make a diamond-point, 59. 

rounding-up, 74. 

Tools used in repairing, 16. 

Train, watch, 54, 86. 

Train-wheel pivots, play of, 10. 

Turning, art of, 97. 

V 

Verdigris spots, 63. 

Vibration, observe balance, 29. 

Visible depths, 10. 


ig6 


INDEX TO HOROLOGY. 


W 

Watch, the, I. 

Watch case, clean, 59. 
clean, 5, 7. 

cleaning, benzine in, 84. 

cleaning with cyanide of potassium, 7. 

dials, 31. 

dials, bleach, 43. 

examine, 102. 

external examination of, 8. 

hands, 102. 

mainspring, 77. 

oil, 43. 

oil, apply, 54. 
regulate a fine, 90. 
repairing, 11, 70. 
screws, extract broken, 44. 
time a, 44. 
train, 54, 86. 


Watch work, hand-turning in, 98. 

Watches, adjusting of large and small, 64. 
jewels in, 96. 
motive force in, 75. 
repairing and examining, 7. 
repairing English patent lever, 67, 
timing of, 44, 65, 97. 

Wheel, polish, 36. 

straighten cylinder, 85. 

Wheels, frosting of, 83. 
heavy, 37. 
light, 38. 
train of, 102. 

Whetstone, make a, 85. 

Wood rod and lead bob for pendulum, 73. 

Write upon steel, 55. 

Y 

Yankee clock, repair a, 82. 



J t 



I 


INDEX TO GOLD, SILVER, ETC. 


A 

Abyssinian gold, 168. 

Accidents in pouring, 141. 

Acid coloring, 123. 

Alloy for models, 187. 
gold, no. 
new, 167. 
silversmiths’, 162. 

Alloys of common silver, 145. 
gold and its, in. 
silver, 161. 
silver-aluminum, 161. 

Alum, 170. 

Aluminum bronzes, 172. 
gold, 168. 
melt, 171. 
solder for, 169. 

Amalgam, make gold, 137. 

Armenian cement, 169. 

Artificial gold, 168. 

Avoirdupois weight, 176. 

B 

Bell metal, 170. 

Borax and saltpeter, property of, 109. 
Brass, coloring and lacquering, 173. 
Britannia, 170. 

Brittle gold, 121. 

Bronze coating on iron, etc., 185. 
Bronzing iron and steel, 186. 

Brushes, cleanse, 187. 

C 

Cast in fish-bone, 139. 

Casting, 136. 

best mold for, 109. 

Cement, acid proof, 167. 
alabaster, 186. 
excellent, 186. 
for fastening metal, 173. 
for glass and metal, 170. 
for lamps, 171. 
for meerschaum, 187. 
jewelers’ Armenian, 169. 
transparent, 187. 

Chalk, prepare, 186. 

Charcoal, 167. 

Chloride of gold, make, 137. 

Clean silver, 160. 

Cleanse silver tarnished by soldering, 160. 
Cleansing gold tarnished in soldering, 140. 

mat gold, 141. 

Cold silvering, 152, 160. 


Coloring and lacquering brass, 173. 
gold, 138, 170. 
soft solder, 140. 
tin solder yellow, 142. 

Colors of gold, 112. 

Conversions, 175. 

Cracked gold, correct, 109. 

Crocus for polishing steel, 168. 
Cyanide of gold, 140. 

D 

Dead-white on silver, 164. 

Diamond weight, 176. ,/ 

Dipping mixture, 162. 

Dissolvents, 163. 

Dissolving gold, 122. 

silver, 154. 

Drill onyx, 187. 

E 

Electro fire-gilding and silvering, 127. 
Enameling, 129. 

Engraving, letter, 180. 

Etching fluid for steel, i8v 
gold, 158. 

on glass and metal, 169, 
silver, 158. 

Eyes, care of the, 181. 

F 

Facetious gold, 140. 

Fish-bone, cast in, 139. 

Fluid, soldering, 116. 

Fluoric acid for etching glass, 173. 
Friction powder, gold, 138. 

Frosting gold, 138. 

pickle for, 161. 
polished silver, 161. 
silver, 157. 

Fusing gold dust, 136. 

G 

German silver, 167. 

restore, 167. 
solder, 167. 

Gilding without a bath, 136. 

Gilt metal, recover gold from, 141. 
Glass tubes, bending, 187. 

Gold, Abyssinian, 168. 

and its alloys, III. 
aluminum, 168. 
artificial, 168. 



INDEX TO GOLD, SILVER, ETC. 


198 


Gold, changing color, 143. 
coloring, 170. 
dust, fusing, 136. 
friction powder, 138. 
mystery, 168. 
salts, preparation of, 142. 
scraps, 119. 
solders, 114. 
tinge, 172. 

Goldsmith, mission of the, 105. 

Gram weight in troy weight, 176, x 79. 

_ H 

Hole in glass, 187. 

I 

Imitate inlaying of silver, 154. 

Imitation silver, 165. 

Ingot, malleability of the, 109. 
molds, 137. 

'Inlaying of silver, imitate, 154. 

Inscriptions on metals, 172. 

Iron, case-harden, 187. 

J 

Jewelers’ pickle, 142. 

solder, 167. <QC: 

Jewelry, repairing, 128. 

K .G£I to 

Karats in thousandths, 179. 

L 

Lacquer, pale gold, 186. 

Lapping, 123. 

Letter engraving, 180. 

Luster of gold, restoring, 136. 

of silver, restoring, 159. 

M 

Making gold roll well, 141. 

Malleability of the ingot, 109. 

Mat brushing, 166. 

gold, cleansing, 141. 

Melting and refining, 141. 
gold, 108. 
waste, no. 

Metal letters on plate-glass, 186. 

Metric system of lenses, 177. 

Millimeter and inch measures, 177. 

Mold for casting, the best, 109. 

Mystery gold, 168. 

O 

Oil-stones, smoothing, 187. 

Ounces in grams, 172. 

Oxidizing silver, 154, 162. 

P 

Paint for sheet iron, 186. 

Pearls, cleaning, 167. 

Pickle for frosting, 161. 

jewelers’, 142. 

Plate powder, 163. 

Polish gold articles, 138. 

Polishing powder, 172. , 

silver, 158. 

Pouring, accidents in, 141. 

Powdered glass, 187. 


Precipitating gold, 122. 

Preparation of gold salts, 142. 

Preparing for wet coloring, 125. 

Protect polish of metals, 173. 

Pure gilding, know, 137. 
gold, 141. 

R 

Random weights, 176. 

Real gold, how to distinguish, 137. 

Recovering gold from coloring bath, 141 
from gilt metal, 141. 
from solution, 140. 
lost in coloring, 139. 

Reduce jewelers’ sweepings, 121. 

Refining and melting, 141. 
gold, 118. 

Removing gold, 141. 

Repairing jewelry, 128. 

Resilvering brass clock dials, 162. 

Resist varnish, 163. 

Restore luster of gold, 136. 

Restoring color of gold, 116. 

luster of silver, 159. 

Ring stick, 171. 

Rolling, gold smelting and, 106. 

Rust on machinery, preventing, 186. 

S 

Saltpeter, property of borax and, 109. 

Satinizing silver. See Frosting. 

Scrap gold, use of, 109. 

Separating gold, 117. 

gold from silver, 138. 

Silver, alloys of common, 145. 
aluminum alloy, 161. 
articles, whiten, 164. 
dead white on, 164. 
fictitious, 172. 
filigree work, clean, 166. 
from copper, separate, 165. 
from wastage, 161. 
imitation alloys, 145. 
ink stains from, 166. 
liquid for cleaning, 166. 
oxidizing, 162. 
powder for copper, 163. 
recovering, 166. 
reduce chloride of, 165. 
refine, 164. 
solders, 147. 
solder, 152. 

stripping mixture, 163. 
white-pickling, 165. 

Silvering by dipping, 153. 
cold, 152. 
rapid, 165. 
solution, 170. 
without battery, 161. 

Silverware, cleaning, 165. 

testing, 164. 
washing, 161. 

Sizes of watch movements, 176. 

Smelting and rolling gold, 106. 

Soft solder, 163. 

coloring, 140. 
electro-plating, 163. 
remove, 116, 117. 

Soft soldering, 171. 

articles, 116. 


INDEX TO GOLD, SILVER, ETC. 


199 


Solder, for aluminum, 169. 
jewelers’, 167. 
pearl ring, 173. 
silver, 152. 
stain, remove, 116. 
stone-set ring, 173. 
wrong, 117. 

Soldering a ring with a jewel, 116. 
fluid, 116, 163. 

fluid, non-corrosive, 167, 171. 
support in hard, 170. 

Solders, gold, 114. 

Specific gravity, 177. 

Spectacles and eye-glasses, 184. 

Stain horn black, 188. 

Steel, etching fluid for, 185. 
soldering cast, 185. 
work hard, 185. 

Stripping gold, 118. 

silver, 163. 

Support in hard soldering, 170. 

Sweepings, refine, 172. 


T 

Tarnishing of silver, 160. 

Thermometer scales, 178. 

Tin from stock, remove, 138. 

Tin solder yellow, coloring, 142. 

Toughen brittle gold, 122. 

Troy weight, 176. 

V 

Varnish, gold-like, 171. 

W 

Washing silverware, 161. 

Wastage, silver from, 161. 

Waste, melting, 1x0. 

Watch movements, sizes of, 174. 

Wet coloring by the German process, 126. 

preparing for, 125. 

White color after pickling, 137. 
metal alloys, 143. 
pickling silver, 165. 



I 









201 


Small Materials. 

We believe it is generally conceded that the following con¬ 
ditions are fundamental in establishing a successful business 
in the sale of Watch Materials: 

thorough technical knowledge; 
ample capital to secure lowest prices; 
system—which means promptness; 
common honesty, 

“and the last shall be first” in the estimation of those retail jewelers who have been imposed 
upon by the substitution of imitation material for genuine. 

We confidently point to our record in demonstration of 
our service in this department and our thorough com¬ 
prehension of its needs. 

We invite comparison with any other material house in the 
essential features of accuracy, promptness, fairness and 
price, as well as in the minor considerations which make 
for highest satisfaction on the part of the buyer. 

We solicit the orders of all jewelers who appreciate the immense 
advantages centering around the fact that a practical 
watchmaker is at the head of our Material Department, 
under the direct personal supervision of the practical 
watchmaker who is at the head of the firm. 

Bowman & Musser, 

Importers and Jobbers, 

Watches, Chains, Spectacles, Tools and Materials, 

Lancaster, Pa. 


202 


FACTS WORTH KNOWING. 

LONG FELT WANTS PROVIDED FOR. 

WE ARE THE ALERT PEOPLE. 



Spencer Optical Mt'g Co's Works. 


We constantly study to meet the demands of this advanced age, being manufacturers and makers 
of just what the live dealer wants. Do not try to push unsalable goods ; bear in mind we are manu¬ 
facturing Opticians, the largest house in the United States, and we know what the consumer wants. 
This we give to the trade. You give the consumer what he wants and he will bring others to you 
Buy of the house that caters to your need and to a higher standard of excellence; place yourself in a 
position to make a Ten-Thousand-Dollar a year reputation—others are doing this, why not you? We 
offer to you at the lowest figures, goods of the highest standard of excellence in the Audemair cele¬ 
brated Opera, Field and Marine Glasses. Over Four Hundred varieties; Audemair’s Test Lenses in 
Spencer's Trial Case , the pride of Oculists, many new and perfect designs in all grades of gold, 
silver and aluminum alloy spectacles and eye-glasses, including the new Bar Springs and specialties for 
cylindrical Lenses, specialty frames to fit any face, saddle, snake, hoop, and other forms of bridges ; 
spiral, adjustable and flexible wire temples in Riding Bow (the compromise), or temple eye glass. 

Our Prescription Department contains over 750,000 Special Lenses in every known combination of 
Sphero-Cylindrique and Prismatic, ready to fit to frames. No waiting. 

We carry a full line of all imported goods in the medium grades. Regular lines, our own make, 
consists of Diamond, Pebble, Crescent. Crystal, Sapphire. Azurline, Ruby, Tints and other lenses, set 
into gold, silver, aluminum, alloy, nickel, bronze, blue and nickel plate steel of finest quality, amber 
shell and jet celluloid , rubber and other frames. 

Lorgnettes are again in vogue. We offer over sixty designs. In Opera Glass Holders we have 
three hundred styles ; in fact we have every possible article desired in the Optical Field and of best 
quality. 

We give a full course of scientific instructions through the Spencer Optical Institute, which is free 
to our patrons (price of goods the same to students as to others). This branch is under skilled and com¬ 
petent instructors. The course commences the first Tuesday in each month. Correspond with former 
graduates and with us. Send for addresses and investigate. Send queries of difficult cases to our 
consulting oculists; information cheerfully given. Fit by our Trial Case; sell good goods at good 
prices and you will gain Reputation, Success, and “Down” your competitors. 

CATALOGUE FREE TO THE TRADE. 

Spencer Optical Manufacturing Company, 

No. 15 Maiden Lane, New York City. 

FACTORIES AT NEWARK, NEW JERSEY. 




























































203 



AMERICAN WATCHES, 

DIAMONDS, JEWELRY, 

CLOCKS and BRONZES. 


__Agents for THE E. INGRHHflm CO. CLOCKS_ 

141 & 143 STATE ST., ^ 

CHICAGO, ILL. m 


SEND FOR CATALOGUES AND CIRCULARS.. 
















































WARRANTED IN EVERY 
RESPECT TO GIVE THE USER 
ENTIRE SATISFACTION. 


ROGERS & BRO., 

16 Cortlandt St., New York. 


★ ROGERS & BRO. A-l. 

OF WATERBURY, CONN. 

The Oldest and Best Brand of “Rogers Goods.” 


ASSYRIAN 


TUXEDO 


SAVOY 




































































205 


HEADQUARTERS FOR 



SILVER, > FILLED • AND • GOLD • CASES. 


VARIOUS CRADES. PRICES MODERATE. 


A. WITTNAUER, 

Manufacturer and importer, 

PLAIN AND COMPLICATED WATCHES, 

19 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK. 


Agassiz and hongines Finished Watch Material supplied to the trade. 















206 


WALTHAM .* SCHOOL W WATCH. 

THE PLACE TO LEARN THE WATCHMAKING TRADE IS 

THE WALTHAM SCHOOL OF HOROLOGY. 

WE HAVE the best equipped plant. 

WE HAVE the best instructors. 

WE HAVE complete facilities for making a watch, and every student is allowed to MAKE 
AND OWN ONE. 

WE HAVE hundreds of references in all parts of the country. Write for particulars. 

PALMER & SWAIN, Proprietors, 

WALTHAM, MASS. 



Incomparable. 

IS THE ONLY WORD NECESSARY TO DESCRIBE OUR GOODS. 

HUNDREDS OF NEW SAMPLES. 

WE MAKE AND GUARANTEE 

“ MT. HOPE” BUTTONS. LOCKETS and CHARMS. 

CHAIN MOUNTINGS. GLOVE BUTTONERS. 

CROSSES. GARTERS. CHAINS. BRACELETS. 

BEAD NECKS. PINS. EARRINGS. STUDS. 

ALL IN HEAVY ROLLED PLATE. 

FOSTER & BAILEY, 

PROVIDENCE, RHODE ISLAND. 


+ CHAS. LEO ABRY, #■ 

SOLE AGENT FOR 

VACHERON & CONSTANTIN, 

GENEVA WATCHES, 

41 & 43 Maiden Lane, NEW YORK. 

,Knapp Building.) 

TRADEMARK. SOLE IMPORTER OF THE STAR AND CRESCENT WATCHES. TRADEMARK. 



D. M F.& CO 







207 


“Staple Goods at Popular Prices 


}} 



Hardinge Mngic Roller Remover. 
Price, S 1.50. 


One dozen assorted stem-wind ratchet and 
per dozen. 


SUPERIOR MAINSPRINGS for all grades of American 
Watches. Each and every spring guaranteed against breakage. 
Si.oo per dozen; §12.00 per gross. 

WALTHAM, ELGIN, HAMPDEN, SPRINGFIELD and 
ROCKFORD Cock and Foot-Hole Jewels in settings. $1.25 
per dozen ; §12.00 per gross. 

BALANCE-STAFFS for all the above watches. $1.50 per dozen 
$15.00 per gross. 

One gross, extra-fine quality, turned and perfectly round SWISS 
CAP-JEWELS, nicely assorted, gi.oo per gross. 

PENDANT-SCREWS, for holding the stem in (a long felt 
want supplied), one gross, well assorted, in vial, 75 cents. 

SOLID GOLD TIMING-WASHERS, for putting under the 
balance-screws to make watches run slow, without altering the 
hairspring. Price. 25 cents per dozen. Brass, 50 cents per gross. 
Have them in 6, 16 and 18 sizes. 

LIBERTY FRENCH GOLD PAINT, for covering soft solder 
jobs. Price complete, with mixer, brushes, etc., per box, 50 cents. 

intermediate WI N D I N G - W H E E LS, all makes or to suit, $1.50 


SWISS BALANCE and TRAI N-J E WE LS. First quality, $4.50; second quality, $3.50; third quality, 
$2.50; fourth quality, $1.50 per gross, nicely assorted. 


One dozen O. M. DRAPER celebrated FI RE-GILT CHAINS, good, staple patterns, assorted $5.50. 


PURE WHITE METAL CHAINS, first quality, small curb, $1.50; 

medium, $1.75; large, $2.00; extra large, $2.50 per dozen. 

One dozen FANCY PATTERNS, assorted on velvet pads. Pure White Metal 
Chains, gents’ sizes, $2.75 ; boy's sizes, $2.50. 

FANCY DIALS, all sizes, $1.50 each. 

LOUIS XV. HANDS. Solid gold, 10K. $6.50 dozen pairs; 60 certs sample 
pair. Low karat, $1.50 dozen pairs; 25 cents pair. 

One gross assorted AMERICAN HANDS, $150. 

One gross assorted AMERICAN SECOND-HANDS, $i-75- 

One dozen ENGLISH FIRE-GILT CHAINS. Soldered links, well 
assorted on nice velvet pad. Price, $3.50. 


HARSTROM'S PATENT 







Birch’s Improved Patent Watch Ivey. 
Will wind any Watch. 

Price, @1.00 - per dozen. 



Metal Screw Cap Bottles. 

35 cents per dozen. @3.00 per gross. 



ADJUSTABLE CASE SPRINCk 


Orders filled from any Catalogue. Mention Workshop Notes. Price, $1.00 per dozen. 


All of the above material packed in metal screw cap bottles without extra charge. A discount of |0 PER 
CENT. allowed off all the above items for cash with order, illustrations included. Address all orders to 


H. B. PETERS, 


Dealer in Fine Watch Materials and Tools, 
Jewelers’ Findings, Rolled-Plate and Fire-Gilt 
Chains, Dockets, Charms, etc. 


3 1 maiden Lane, Hew York Citg. 


REME9IBER, orders filled from any Catalogue. 




























2o8 


ILLINOIS 

SPRINGFIELD 

WATCHES. 


THE ILLINOIS WATCH COMPANY are 

now selling their product direct to the legiti¬ 
mate retail trade, and the increasing demand for 
their adjusted grades, from the best dealers, is strong 
evidence of their superiority. 

The new Nickel Bunn Adjusted Movement 

is as accurate a time-keeper as can be made, regard¬ 
less of price. 

Their 16 size line is the most desirable on 
the market. 

Send for Price List. 



SPRINGFIELD, ILL. 

NEW YORK: 

n JOHN STREET. 

SAN FRANCISCO: 


CHICAGO : 

104 STATE STREET. 


220 SUTTER STREET. 




209 


THE TRADE 



ADVANTAGE, PECUNIARILY, 

TO SEND US THEIR 

Jjtoeepingg, and Qld Sold and Silver 1 . 


WITH OUR IMMENSE PLANT, LOCATED AT 

ChiGago \ Aurora, Ills., \ Leadville, Colo., 

We have facilities not equalled by any other concern in the 
Country for the handling of 

ORES, BULLION, 

SWEEPINGS, and GOLD 

and SILVER SCRAP 

OF ALL KINDS. 


Chicago a lima 




CHICAGO, ILLS. 












2 10 


THE BURDON SEAMLESS FILLED WIRE 

which has become so universally used by the representative makers of jewelry, in place of the old-style 
seamed plated wire, is especially valuable to the repairer of jewelry. It forms a perfect substitute for 
solid gold wire, and, being absolutely seamless and solid, can be flattened, twisted, bent and manip¬ 
ulated in any possible manner. Demand of your jobber, goods made from the original BURDON 
SEAMLESS FILLED GOLD WIRE, and use only this wire for repairing purposes. Beware of 
deceptive imitations. a 

TRADE (MARK 

BURDON SEAMLESS FILLED WIRE CO., 

PROVIDENCE, R. I. 



G. F. WADSWORTH, 

Watch Case Manufacturer, 

. . . AND . . . 

-—- REPAIRER, --- 

Refer to any Jeweler in CHICAGO. 

Bo. 182 STATE STREET, CHICAGO, ILL. 

Old English and Swiss cases changed to take American Stem Winder Movements. 

Eever Sets changed to Pendant Sets. Can make any repair or change, no matter how diMcult. 





ORIGINAL 


2 I I 


.. ^=AND = - 

GENUINE 

SE AMLESS 

GOLD FILLED 

6HAINS 

MADE BY 

KENT l STANLEY COIPAIY, 

PROVIDENCE, 


R. I. 















2 I 2 


GEO. H. TAYLOR & CO., 

IMPORTERS OF AND JOBBERS IN 

WATCHES • AND • CLOCKS, 

Watch and Clock Materials, Tools, Opera and Field 
Glasses, Spectacles, Eye Glasses, Etc. 

WATCH AND CLOCK REPAIRING.^ 

140 WESTMINSTER STREET, PROVIDENCE, R. I. 

The Wadsworth Watch Case Co. 

NEWPORT, KY., 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

Gold Filled Watch Cases. 


APOLOGY or excuse for 
dull business is never heard 
from Jewelers handling the 

Wadsworth Gold Filled Watch Cases. 

We have never shown greater 
varieties nor such elegant styles 
as at present. 



CHICAGO WATCH TOOL CO. 


INCORPORATED. 

MANUFACTURERS OF- 


letoelerg’ Machineri), OOatch Ma^erg' and jewelers’ JT'L Gtc., 


No. 52 MADISON STREET, 


Special Machines and Tools 
. . . Made to Order. . . 

Send for Illustrated Catalogue. 


>: x x CHIGAGO. 

























213 


m m 




sNstc h r 

Ame ( ' c °°I e 

Stoney Batter Works: 


o., 


Chymistry District, 


W a l t h a m , Mass. 


♦ ♦ ♦ Hanufacturers of the ♦ ♦ » 



We have made over 7,000 LATHES. 


WE HAVE HADE 

3000 

"WeBSTeR" FO0T WHEELS. 

^442 WERE SOLD IN 1891 . £ 


These sales show the public appreciation of our workmanship. 
IMITATIONS are abroad 

Demand the ORIGINAL, with Ol R GUARANTEE. 

CHEAP, UNTRUE CHUCKS can be bought, but they soon ruin 
the Draw-in Spindle of a Lathe. 

BEWARE OF THEM. 


















































214 


BOGAN’S 


' ./atofrmaKers*, Keefe 


THE "GEM” SCREWDRIVER. 

Best in the market. Color of bead denominates size of blade. Screw-thread directs pressure. 

STANDARD HAIR SPRING GAUGE. 

The only correct Standard in the country. 

NON-MAGNETIC TWEEZERS. Thoroughly practical. 

STEEL TWEEZERS, train and end-shaking, finest quality made. 

LOGAN'S PATENT HEATER, for adjusting to heat and cold— 

only one in the market. 

UNIVERSAL BEAT BLOCK, original and best. 



UPRIGHT AND JAW GAUGES. 

LOGAN'S PATENT JEWEL PIN SETTER. 

BREGUET SPRING TWEEZERS, three in set. 

TEMPERED WIRE FOR DRILLS. Fifty pieces in a box. 

STAKING TOOL, for staking on the hair spring and table. Interchangeable screw-driver, 
four blades. 

Be sure in ordering of your Jobber that you ask for LOGAN'S TOOLS. 


A. J. LOGAN, 

Manufacturer of WATCHMAKERS’ TOOLS, 

WALTHAM, MASS. 
































2I 5 


ESTABLISHED OVER 50 YEARS. 


Randell, Barremore & Billings, 


IMPORTERS OF 


DIAMONDS^- 


==And Other Precious Stones. — 

MANUFACTURERS OF 

DIAMOND JEWELRY. 


Diamonds Reeut or Repaired on Premises. Goods 
sent for Selection to Responsible Parties. 


58 NASSAU STREET, 1 ST. HNDREWS STREET, 

29 ffiRIDEN LRNE, 1 TULP STRRRT, HOLBORN CIRCUS, 

NEW YORK. AMSTERDAM. LONDON, E. C. 




IMPORTERS 

AND 

MANUFACTURERS. 



































DIAMOND SETTINGS. 


GALLERIES. 


HOLLOW BALLS, ETC 


BLANGAI^B & 00., 

36 & 38 JOHN STREET, 

SEND FOR OUR NEW YORK. CATALOGUE. 



English Hall Clocks, 

French Clocks of all Descriptions. 

Carriage Clocks, Clock Sets, 

Swiss Regulators, Movements. 


The Largest Stock of Imported Clocks to be Found. 

DO YOU KNOW 

, THAT WE KEEP IN STOCK A EE PARTS OF - 

FRENCH AND ENGLISH CLOCKS P 

It will pay you to show this card to your Clock Maker, and to send to us for the 

Clock Materials you may require. 

CHAS. JACQUES CLOCK CO. 

Importers of Clocks, Movements, Etc. 

Catalogue Free. 22 CORTLANDT ST., NEW YORK. 

the PATEK phillippe mainspring 

AS ITS NAME IMPLIES, 

THE BEST MAINSPRING ON THE MARKET. 

For all Sizes of Swiss Watches. 

MANUFACTURED ESPECIALLY FOR 

CHARGES MAY, 

DEALER IN 

♦ 

Tools, • materials • and • jewelers’ • Findings, 

386 Washington Street, Boston, Mass. 










217 


0R@SS & BE0UELIN, 

17 Maiden Lane, New York. 

IMPORTERS OF 

Diamonds and all grades of Swiss Watches. 
Jobbers of AMERICAN WATCHES, 

GOLD AND ROLLED PLATE JEWELRY, 

WATCH MATERIALS, ETC. 

Manufacturers of the Old Reliable Centennial Watches and Timers. 


The Universal Mainspring, 

FOR AMERICAN WATCHES. 


UNIFORM IN COLOR. EXACT IN SIZE. 



The Acme of Perfection in a Mainspring and the 
BEST QUALITY of the BEST manu¬ 
facture in Europe. 


See that each spring bears the name of “Universal.” All 
others are imitations. 


DON’T 


use two dozen cheap springs for 
six watches while we GUAR¬ 
ANTEE that you can rely on 
ELEVEN “UNIVERSALS” in every DOZEN. 


Save Time, Money and Reputation 

By Doing GOOD WORK with GOOD MATERIAL. 


Price: $ 1.50 per Dozen; $ I 5.00 per gross. 
Packed In anti-rust tin boxes ESPECIALLY MADE 
FOR THIS SPRING. 

For Sale by all Jobbers. Imported by 


HAMMEL, RICLANDER & CO., 


35 MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK. 

If you cannot obtain the UNIVERSAL from your Jobber, notify the Importers and they will supply you with 

a list of Jobbers who do keep it. 


LOUIS NEWMAN, Jr., 

Gold and Silver Plater, 

ETRUSCAN COLORING, 

No. 37 JOHN STREET, 


NEW YORK. 























VALUABLE BOOKS AS PREMIUMS 

WITH THE JEWELERS’ CIRCULAR. 

THE OLDEST, ABLEST AND BEST-KNOWN WEEKLY JEWELRY JOURNAL IN THE COUNTRY 


•S 5 5 C-2 
&C S|8 

Goldsmith’s Handbook, containing full instruc-iS-"*' 
tions for the Alloying andWorking of Gold. By 
Geo. E. Gee. Price, post paid. $1.20 $2.00 

Silversmith’s Handbook, containing full in¬ 
structions for the Alloying and Working of Sil¬ 
ver. By Geo. E. Gee. Price, post-paid. 1.20 2.00 

Practical Instruction in the Art of Letter 
Engraving. By G. F. Whelply. Price, post¬ 
paid. 1.25 2.00 

Kemlo’s Watch Repairer’s Handbook. Illus¬ 
trated. For beginners and advanced work¬ 
men. By F. Kemlo. Price, post-paid . 1.25 2.00 

Treatise on Modern Horology in Theory and 
Practice. By M. Claudius Saunier. Trans¬ 
lated by Julien Tripplin, Besancon Watch 
Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M. A., As- 
sayer in the Royal Mint, London. Price.... 15.00 15.00 
This valuable work comprises 832 large octavo 
pages , with 78 IVood Cuts and21 colored double¬ 
page copper-plate Engravings , is printed on 
excellent paper and bound in half cal/, with a 
handsome and appropriate ornament in gold 
on front cover. 

Watchmaker’s Handbook. Latest edition,- re¬ 
vised and enlarged, Same Author and Trans¬ 
lator, and intended as a companion to the 
Treatise. Illustrated by 14 double-page, Cop¬ 
perplate Engravings and numerous Wdod 

Cuts ; cloth cover. Price, post-paid,. 3.50 

The Watch Jobber’s Handy Book. A practical 
Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting 
Watches ; with information on the Tools, Ma¬ 
terials, Appliances and Processes employed in 
Watchwork. By Paul N. Hasluck, ioo Illus¬ 
trations. 80 

The Clock Jobber’s Handy Book. A practical 
Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting 
Clocks; with information on the Tools, Ma¬ 
terials, Appliances, and processes used in 
Clockwork. By Paul N. Hasluck. ioo Illus¬ 
trations . 80 


4.00 


2.00 


2.00 


Electro-Plating. A Practical Handbook on 
the deposition of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold 
Aluminum,Brass, Platinum, etc.; with descrip¬ 
tions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries and 


Dynamo Machines used in the Art. By J. W. 

Urquhart . 2.00 3.00 

A Practical Treatise on Electro-Plating. 

By Edward Trevert. Just the book for ama¬ 
teurs. Fully illustrated. Cloth. Price. 50 2.00 


The Metallic Alloys. A practical guide for 
the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal¬ 
gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, 
together with their Chemical and Physical 
Properties and their Application in the Arts 
and in the Industries; with an Appendix on 
the Coloring of Alloys. From the German of 
A. Krupp Andreas Wildberger. Illustrated 

by 16 Engravings. 2.50 3.50 

The Assayer’s Manual. An abridged Trea¬ 
tise on the Docimastic Examinat of Ores, and 
Furnace and other Artificial Products. By 

Bruno Kerl . 3.00 4.00 

Manual of the Transit Instrument, as used for 
Obtaining Correct Time. By Latimer Clark, 

M. I. C. E.40 2.00 


Turning Lathes. A Manual for Technical c*; 0 ' 
Schoo's and Apprentices. A Guide in Turning, 

Screw Cutting, Metal Spinning, etc. 194 Illus¬ 
trations. Edited by James Lukin, B. A. $1.00 $2.00 


-> L 
, V <3 

IS 

tSG 


Workshop Receipts for the use of Manufactur¬ 
ers, Mechanics and Scientific Amateurs. By 
Ernest Spon. 2.00 3.00 


Gems and Precious Stones of North America. 

By Geo. F. Kunz. A popular description of 
their occurrence, value, history, archaeology, 
and of the collections in which they exist; also 
a chapter on Pearls. Illustrated with 8 colored 

plates and numerous minor engravings,. 10.00 10.50 

A Handbook of Precious Stones. By M. D. 
Rothschild. Cloth. Illustrated. 1.00 2.00 


♦Encyclopaedia of Monograms, containing more 
than five thousand combinations of two, three 
and four letters in the English, French, Ger¬ 
man and Antique styles. The plan and scope 
of the compilation of this book differs from that 
of any similar publication. The best results of 
many monogramic artists have been diligently 
gathered from different sources and carefully 
arranged under various headings, so that any 
combination desired can be found at once. In 
the work will also be found numerous quaint 
and beautiful specimens of- ornamental letter¬ 
ing; 130 page plates, each 10x14 inches. Price, 6.00 6.00 
A Treatise on Simple and Compound Ophthal¬ 
mic Lenses. By Chas. F. Prentice. A com¬ 
panion text to the oculist’s trial case, and the 
only work on this subject extant. With 37 
new and original diagrams. 8vo. Bound in 
cloth. 1.50 2.50 


Dioptric Formulae for Combined Cylindrical 
Lenses, applicable for all angular deviations 
of their axes. By Chas. F. Prentice. The 
first complete mathematical demonstration of 
this interesting problem in geometrical op¬ 
tics. WithsiX"original Diagrams, and one Pho¬ 
tographic Plate of Dr. S. M.Burnett’s Models, 
as constructed by the author. Edition limited. 

8vo. Bound in cloth. 3.00 3.50 

Handbook for Opticians. By W. Bohne. Il¬ 
lustrated. Price. 1.50 2.50 


Lectures on the Errors of Refraction and 
their Correction with Glasses, delivered 
at the New York Post-Graduate Medical 
School, with illustrative cases from practice, 
both private and clinical, by Francis Valk, M. 

D. Octavo, 240 pp. fully illustrated, bound in 

cloth. Price. 3.00 4.00 


The Ophthalmoscope, a Manual for Students, 
by Gustavus Hartridge, F. R. C. S. The 
book is simple and systematic. It is profusely 
illustrated with fine woodcuts, and bound in 
cloth, of a handy size for pocket use, 128 pages. 

Price... 1.50 2.50 

The Refraction on the Eye ; a Manual for Stu¬ 
dents,by Gustavus Hartridge, F. R. C. S. 

The main facts on the Refraction of the Eye 
are clearly and briefly stated, and so arranged 
as to enable practitioners and students to diag¬ 
nose errors of refraction accurately, and to pre¬ 
scribe suitable glasses for their correction. 

Size, i2mo, 251 pages, bound in cloth. Price.. 1.75 2.75 


For Two Dollars, we will send The Jewelers’ Circular for One Year and a copy of any of the following 
books, free : 

Dickies' Improved Watch Repair Book, containing 100 pages, ruled for full record of all repairing handled. 

Dickies' Improved Watch Stock Book, same as above, but ruled for purchase and sales of Watches. 

Monograms from The Jewelers’ Circular, a compilation of 44 large plates, embracing every letter of the 
alphabet,.combined with every other letter, in Six Different Styles (from which plain and script maybe 
deduced), containing in al] 2,112 monograms. ’ 

Ten copies of “Souvenir Spoons of America,” the only publication of the kind in print, Containing illus¬ 
trations and description of nearly 200 of the finest and most popular souvenir spoons manufactured. 
These-books will be sent by express, charges prepaid. 

Sent, post paid, on receipt of prioe, fcy THE JEWELERS’ CIRCULAR PUBLISHING COMPANY, 139 BROADWAY, NEW YORE CITY. 
























PAILLARD 


NONMAGNETIC 


WATCHES 




16 SIZE. 


T HESE celebrated watches have become a staple in 
the stocks of the retail trade. As an innovation in 
the science of Horology they have successfully withstood the 
most exacting criticism. The rapid growth of the practical 
uses of electricity is but in its infancy, and the evil effects 
of magnetism on watches makes a non-magnetic watch a 
necessity. Paillard Non-magnetic Watches are superior to 
all others and the ivatch of the future. 

Paillard . Non-magnetic Watches are of the newest 
models, contain the latest improvements, and possess all 
the merits of other makes, with the additional advantage of 
being non-magnetic and non-oxidizable. 

The prices of Paillard Non-magnetic Watches are 
not known to the public, but confined to the legitimate 
watch trade ; they are “ nameless ” and afford the dealer a 
living profit. If you have never handled Paillard Non¬ 
magnetic Watches, you are missing an opportunity, as they 
offer more advantages than any other watch made. If you 
have handled them, increase your dealings and add to your 
profits. 

Paillard Non-magnetic Watches can be had from any 
leading jobber ; and as every movement is fully warranted 
and prices guaranteed , you are absolutely protected 
from any shrinkage in values, and therefore need have 
no hesitancy in keeping a full line in stock. Order from 
your jobber and give them a trial. You will find them all 
we claim. Descriptive Price List with full information 
mailed on request to any regular dealer. 

Respectfully, 


NON-MAGNETIC WATCH CO., 

177 BROHDWHY, 


NEW YORK, 










220 



IMPORTERS, 


MANUFACTURERS, 


7 # 


JOBBERS, 


. . . SOLE AGENTS FOR^ 




Glardon’s Swiss Files, 

L. Hugoniot Tissot Tools, 

Bourgoin’s Chasing Tools. 


BRU/MES 


IS ONE OF OUR SPECIALTIES AND THE VARIETY WE 
MANUFACTURE IS LARGER THAN THAT OF ANY OTHER 
MAKER IN BOTH BRISTLE AND WIRE. 


SAW J. 


OUR DAGGER BRAND, AS PER LABEL SHOWN HERE, IS THE 
BEST SAW MADE. 



WE CARRY IN STOCK THE LARGEST ASSORTMENT OF TOOLS AND SUPPLIES FOR 


Jewelers, Silvers miths, Engravers, Watch and Watchcase M anufacturers, 
Clock and Chronometer Makers, Platers, Polishers, Machinists, 

And all Kindred Trades, 


THEREFORE WE ARE BETTER PREPARED TO EXECUTE ALL ORDERS WITH 
MORE PROMPTNESS THAN ANY OTHER HOUSE. 


39 JOHN ST., * NEW YORK. 

































©orHam Mfs. 00., 

♦ SILVERSMITHS, * 

Address all communications 

Broadway and 19 th Street, New York. 

- - ^ -- - - 



Gorham manufacturing Co's Works at Providence, R.i. 

BRANCH OFFICES: 


23 MAIDEN LANE. NEW YORK. 137 & 139 STATE STREET, CHICAGO. 

118 & 120 SUTTER STREET, SAN FRANCISCO. 36 AYENUE DE L’OPERA, PARIS. 


Works: 


Providence, 


R. I. 


LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 


(ptjt,. ? I)a- 

Shelt ~?_c>,£Lc 


UNITEI) STATES OF AMERICA. 























































































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